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Russo-Ukraine War - February 2025

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A number of claims and counterclaims are being made on the Ukraine-Russia conflict on the ground and online. While GlobalSecurity.org takes utmost care to accurately report this news story, we cannot independently verify the authenticity of all statements, photos and videos.

On 24 February 2022, Ukraine was suddenly and deliberately attacked by land, naval and air forces of Russia, igniting the largest European war since the Great Patriotic War. Russian President Vladimir Putin announced a "special military operation" (SVO - spetsialnaya voennaya operatsiya) in Ukraine. The military buildup in preceeding months makes it obvious that the unprovoked and dastardly Russian attack was deliberately planned long in advance. During the intervening time, the Russian government had deliberately sought to deceive the world by false statements and expressions of hope for continued peace.

"To initiate a war of aggression... is not only an international crime; it is the supreme international crime differing only from other war crimes in that it contains within itself the accumulated evil of the whole." [Judgment of the International Military Tribunal]

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The Diplomatic Crisis: Trump-Zelenskyy White House Confrontation

February 2025 witnessed one of the most dramatic diplomatic breakdowns of the Russia-Ukraine war when Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyy's February 28 visit to the White House devolved into an unprecedented public confrontation with President Donald Trump and Vice President JD Vance. The meeting, originally scheduled to formalize a minerals agreement giving the United States access to Ukraine's rare earth resources, ended abruptly without any deal being signed and with Zelenskyy being asked to leave the White House.

The confrontation unfolded in front of television cameras during what was supposed to be a brief press availability before substantive talks. Trump and Vance accused Zelenskyy of being ungrateful for American support and disrespectful during the meeting. The dispute centered on Zelenskyy's insistence that any minerals agreement must include concrete security guarantees for Ukraine against future Russian aggression, not merely access to resources. When Vance suggested that diplomacy was the path to peace, Zelenskyy challenged him directly, asking what kind of diplomacy could be trusted when Putin had violated agreements twenty-five times before and continued killing Ukrainian civilians.

The exchange grew increasingly heated as Trump accused Zelenskyy of gambling with the lives of millions and being disrespectful to the country that had backed Ukraine. Vance declared it disrespectful for Zelenskyy to litigate these issues in front of American media. After the cameras left, the situation deteriorated further. Ukrainian officials were moved to a separate room while Trump consulted with his advisers. National Security Advisor Michael Waltz and Secretary of State Marco Rubio then informed the Ukrainians they needed to leave. A planned joint press conference was canceled, and no lunch was served.

The minerals agreement itself represented a complex diplomatic and economic arrangement. Under its terms, Ukraine and the United States would jointly develop Ukraine's mineral resources, including rare earth elements crucial for advanced technology and weapons manufacturing, through a co-managed reconstruction investment fund. Ukraine had been prepared to stake half of future revenues from the country's resources into this fund. However, the draft agreement lacked the security guarantees that Ukraine considered essential, offering only vague support for Ukraine's efforts to obtain such protections.

The immediate aftermath of the meeting saw severe consequences for Ukraine. On March 3, the United States suspended all military aid to Ukraine, including shipments already en route. On March 5, intelligence sharing was also suspended. These actions came at a critical moment as Russian forces continued advancing in eastern Ukraine and maintaining pressure across multiple fronts. The suspension lasted approximately one week before being resumed after talks between American and Ukrainian officials in Saudi Arabia, but only after Zelenskyy agreed to an unconditional thirty-day ceasefire proposal contingent on Russian approval.

International reaction to the confrontation divided sharply along geopolitical lines. Nearly all United States allies swiftly voiced support for Zelenskyy following the meeting, with many statements appearing to rebuke Trump's confrontational approach. Russian officials praised the outcome enthusiastically, with former President Dmitry Medvedev writing that the insolent pig finally got a proper slap down in the Oval Office. Russian state media expressed shock but satisfaction, describing the meeting as a public flagellation and dressing down. Within the United States, reactions largely divided along partisan lines, though even some Republican senators who had traditionally supported Ukraine, such as Lindsey Graham, praised Trump's handling of the meeting.

Nuclear Safety Crisis: The Chornobyl Attack

In the early morning hours of February 14, at approximately 1:50 am local time, a Russian Shahed-136 drone carrying a high-explosive warhead struck the New Safe Confinement structure at the Chornobyl Nuclear Power Plant. The protective shelter, completed in 2019 at a cost of approximately two billion euros, was designed to contain radioactive materials from the site of the world's worst nuclear disaster and protect them from external hazards for one hundred years. The drone impact created a hole approximately six meters in diameter through both the outer and inner cladding layers, triggering an intense fire fueled by flammable insulation material between the protective shells.

International Atomic Energy Agency personnel stationed at Chornobyl heard the explosion and observed smoke and flames emanating from the protective dome. Ukrainian emergency services responded immediately to extinguish the blaze, though thermal imaging revealed that insulation continued smoldering for three weeks after the initial strike. To combat the persistent fire, emergency workers had to create approximately two hundred holes in the outer layer to spray water inside, fundamentally compromising the structure's waterproof design that was intended to ensure its century-long operational lifespan.

The timing of the attack carried obvious political implications. It occurred on the day of the Munich Security Conference, where Vice President Vance was scheduled to meet with Zelenskyy, and came just two days after Trump and Putin held what Trump described as a lengthy and highly productive telephone call regarding potential peace negotiations. Ukrainian officials characterized the strike as nuclear terrorism and a threat to the entire continent, noting that the international community had contributed substantial resources to construct the protective structure following the 1986 disaster that contaminated vast areas of Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia.

Russia vehemently denied responsibility for the attack. Kremlin spokesman Dmitry Peskov dismissed Ukrainian accusations as provocation, stating that Russian military forces do not strike nuclear infrastructure and suggesting that Ukrainian officials fabricated the claim to disrupt peace negotiations. Russian diplomat Rodion Miroshnik similarly accused Kyiv of reacting hysterically to dialogue between Putin and Trump. However, Ukrainian investigators recovered drone remnants consistent with a Shahed-type unmanned aerial vehicle, and the Security Service of Ukraine positively identified the weapon as a HESA Shahed 136, an Iranian-designed drone that Russia had extensively used throughout the war.

Restoration of the damaged structure faces extraordinary challenges. Ukrainian Environmental Protection Minister Svitlana Hrynchuk stated that restoring the facility to one hundred percent functionality could take months or years, with costs potentially exceeding one hundred million euros. Ukraine completed a damage assessment in May and prepared a short-term restoration plan in June. The compromised structure leaves ultra-radioactive graphite and other hazardous materials inadequately protected, presenting ongoing nuclear safety risks to the region.

Front-Line Developments and Territorial Changes

Throughout February, Russian forces maintained steady but grinding advances across multiple sectors of the front line, primarily concentrating efforts in Ukraine's eastern Donetsk region. The pattern of warfare continued to reflect an attritional dynamic, with Russian forces leveraging superior numbers and firepower to capture small settlements and incrementally expand their controlled territory. Ukrainian defenders maintained their positions in most areas but faced relentless pressure from Russian combined arms assaults supported by artillery, aerial bombing, and drone strikes.

In the Donetsk region, Russian forces advanced near several key operational centers. They occupied four settlements close to the Dnipropetrovsk region boundary, including three positions north and northwest of Velyka Novosilka and another southwest of Pokrovsk. Russian attacks threatened the H-32 highway linking Pokrovsk and Kostiantynivka, a critical supply route for Ukrainian forces in the sector. Near Kurakhove, recently fallen to Russian control, advances continued as Moscow sought to consolidate gains and push deeper into Ukrainian defensive lines. Fighting also intensified around Toretsk and Chasiv Yar, where Russian forces worked to penetrate Ukrainian fortifications that had held for months.

The Kharkiv region witnessed Russian territorial expansion both north and south of Dvorichna, with Russian forces seizing multiple settlements. In the northern Donetsk region bordering Luhansk, Russian troops similarly advanced, though Ukrainian forces managed limited counterattacks in some sectors. British intelligence, analysts from the Institute for the Study of War, and Bloomberg reported that Russia was conducting its largest troop redeployment since the Battle of Kyiv in 2022, moving up to one hundred thousand troops to concentrate striking power for a decisive breakthrough in Donetsk.

Ukraine's positions in Russia's Kursk region faced renewed pressure throughout February. Ukrainian forces had launched a fresh offensive push on February 6 to expand the territory they controlled southeast of Sudzha, but the operation stalled within its second week as Ukrainian troops struggled to gain footholds and establish control over additional settlements. President Zelenskyy publicly discussed the possibility of exchanging Ukraine-occupied areas in Kursk for unspecified territories occupied by Russia in Ukraine, though no concrete proposals emerged from these statements.

The strategic calculus behind Ukrainian operations in Kursk remained focused on leveraging territorial holdings as negotiating leverage in potential ceasefire discussions. Since the initial incursion in early August 2024, which saw rapid occupation of over twenty settlements, Ukrainian forces had achieved limited further advances amid Russian counter-offensives conducted jointly with North Korean troops. The level of violence in Kursk remained high throughout February, with Ukraine continuing precision strikes on Russian military command posts even as ground operations yielded minimal territorial changes.

North Korean Military Involvement

February marked a complex chapter in North Korea's unprecedented military intervention in the Ukraine conflict. Early in the month, reports emerged that North Korean troops had withdrawn from front-line combat positions in Kursk after suffering catastrophic casualties. South Korea's National Intelligence Service reported that North Korean forces had not engaged in battle since mid-January, with heavy losses likely motivating the temporary pullback. At least three thousand North Korean soldiers had been killed or wounded according to various intelligence assessments, though exact figures remained difficult to verify.

Ukrainian military intelligence chief Kyrylo Budanov initially disputed reports of a complete North Korean withdrawal, stating that approximately eight thousand North Korean soldiers remained in Kursk throughout early February. However, a spokesperson for Ukraine's Special Operations Forces confirmed that Ukrainian special forces had not faced North Korean troops for three weeks, suggesting significant changes in their deployment pattern. Military intelligence sources characterized the situation as standard rotation procedures following large casualties rather than a permanent withdrawal.

By the second week of February, North Korean forces resumed combat operations in Kursk, but with notably modified tactics. Between one thousand and three thousand additional North Korean troops reportedly arrived via Russian cargo ships and military aircraft in January and February, reinforcing depleted units. When North Korean soldiers returned to front-line positions around February 7, Ukrainian forces observed significant changes in their operational methods. The troops had become more cautious, reduced the size of their assault groups to make them harder to target with drones, and extended the duration of their attacks beyond the initial two-day patterns.

Budanov highlighted that North Korean soldiers in Kursk were gaining valuable combat experience and enhancing their weapons systems through cooperation with Russia. The forces operated with North Korean artillery systems transferred to Russia and attacked almost without combat vehicles, relying primarily on infantry tactics. Their exceptional loyalty to North Korean leader Kim Jong Un apparently drove their disregard for personal safety, presenting unique challenges for Ukrainian defensive operations that typically relied on adversaries' self-preservation instincts.

The broader implications of North Korean involvement extended beyond the immediate tactical situation. A Ukrainian Deputy Defense Minister met with a South Korean delegation in Kyiv on February 28 to discuss bilateral relations and North Korea's role in Russia's war effort. The delegations discussed exchanging defense industrial experience, with South Korean representatives expressing interest in organizing joint seminars between Ukrainian and South Korean defense manufacturers. This cooperation reflected growing international concern about North Korea gaining modern combat experience and potentially transferring lessons learned back to the Korean Peninsula.

Systematic Targeting of Energy Infrastructure

Russia intensified its strategic campaign against Ukraine's energy infrastructure throughout February, conducting waves of drone and missile strikes designed to cripple electricity generation and distribution systems ahead of potential peace negotiations. The attacks represented a continuation and escalation of targeting patterns that began in October 2022 but had intensified significantly since March 2024, when Russia shifted focus from military targets to destroying power generation facilities that sustain civilian populations and economic activity.

The final week of February witnessed particularly devastating attacks on energy systems. On the night of February 27-28, Russia launched over two hundred drones against civilian infrastructure across Ukraine, hitting an unspecified energy facility in Kharkiv region and gas pipelines in Donetsk and Dnipropetrovsk regions. Earlier in the week, Russian drones had struck an electrical substation in Kharkiv on February 25 and energy facilities in Dnipropetrovsk and Odesa regions on February 26, while also damaging power lines in several other regions.

These coordinated strikes triggered emergency blackouts across multiple regions including Dnipropetrovsk, Cherkasy, Sumy, and Kyiv, as well as Kyiv city itself. The attacks forced Ukrainian authorities to implement rotating power outages to prevent total grid collapse and allow repair crews time to restore damaged infrastructure. The systematic nature of the targeting indicated sophisticated intelligence on Ukraine's energy network vulnerabilities and deliberate efforts to maximize disruption with limited resources.

Throughout February, Russia conducted thirty-seven documented long-range missile and drone strikes, with Ukrainian air defenses successfully intercepting attacks in at least forty-six instances across seventeen regions. However, the sheer volume of attacks overwhelmed defensive capabilities in some cases, allowing strikes to reach critical infrastructure. Attacks hit targets across nearly every region of Ukraine, demonstrating Russia's ability to threaten energy systems from multiple directions simultaneously and complicate defensive planning.

The timing of the energy infrastructure campaign coincided with broader diplomatic maneuvering around potential peace talks. On February 28, the United States State Department terminated support for Ukraine's energy grid restoration, signaling a dramatic shift in American policy even before the White House confrontation with Zelenskyy had fully unfolded. This decision eliminated crucial technical assistance and funding that had enabled Ukraine to restore generation capacity after previous Russian attacks, compounding the military impact of the strikes themselves.

Humanitarian Crisis and Civilian Casualties

February continued the grim pattern of civilian suffering that had characterized the war since its beginning in February 2022. During the month, Russian shelling, missiles, and drones killed at least thirty-two civilians in multiple regions during the first week alone, with similar casualty rates continuing through the end of February. The Poltava, Donetsk, Kharkiv, Kherson, Odesa, Sumy, and Dnipropetrovsk regions all reported civilian deaths from Russian attacks, demonstrating the geographic breadth of violence affecting non-combatants.

Specific incidents illustrated the arbitrary nature of civilian victimization. In Kharkiv region, a Russian ballistic missile struck the Izium city council building, killing five civilians. In Kramatorsk, a Russian aerial bomb hit residential buildings and a medical clinic, killing one civilian and injuring sixteen others. These strikes on clearly civilian targets followed well-established patterns of Russian warfare that international observers and human rights organizations had documented throughout the conflict.

Conditions near front-line areas reached catastrophic levels as Russian forces advanced and intensified artillery bombardment of populated areas. Hostilities forced new waves of displacement, with more than sixteen hundred people, including significant numbers of children, fleeing front-line areas primarily in the Donetsk and Kharkiv regions during January and continuing into February. These internally displaced persons faced severe challenges finding safe housing, accessing medical care, and maintaining children's education in areas already strained by years of war.

Russia's recruitment of Ukrainian citizens to conduct sabotage attacks added another dimension to civilian insecurity. The Ukrainian Security Service and police reported multiple incidents throughout February involving individuals recruited via messaging apps by Russian special services to prepare and execute explosions or arson attacks. These targets included military enlistment centers, police departments, and civilian infrastructure. During one week in early February, recruited saboteurs detonated explosives near three military enlistment centers in Rivne, Pavlohrad, and Kamianets-Podilskyi, injuring at least one soldier and ten civilians.

The psychological impact of constant bombardment and the threat of sabotage attacks compounded the direct physical toll of the war. Ukrainian civilians faced not only the danger of Russian missile and drone strikes but also growing internal threats from individuals willing to conduct attacks against their own society for Russian payment. This erosion of social trust represented precisely the kind of destabilization that Russian hybrid warfare doctrine sought to achieve, undermining Ukrainian cohesion even in areas far from active combat zones.

Internal Ukrainian Challenges: Mobilization and Corruption

February exposed continuing tensions within Ukrainian society regarding military mobilization policies and associated corruption. The conflict between national survival imperatives and individual rights created friction that Russian information operations actively exploited. Several high-profile incidents illustrated the challenges Ukrainian authorities faced in maintaining both military manpower and public support for mobilization efforts.

Violence related to draft enforcement emerged as a significant concern. Commander-in-Chief Oleksandr Syrskyi condemned recent violence against draft officers and called for investigations after several incidents came to light. In the Poltava region, a conscript attempting to avoid the draft killed an officer, highlighting the extreme measures some individuals were willing to take to escape military service. The incident sparked debate about conscription practices, with human rights advocates documenting numerous complaints about beatings, forcible transportation, suspicious deaths of new conscripts, and regular human rights abuses associated with mobilization activities.

Corruption allegations continued to plague military recruitment and defense procurement systems. In early August 2024, Member of Parliament Oleksiy Kuznyetsov and former Luhansk Oblast governor Serhii Haidai were arrested on charges related to a corruption scandal involving inflated state contracts for drones and electronic warfare equipment from 2024 to 2025. The investigation revealed systematic inflation of procurement costs, with officials allegedly enriching themselves while delivering substandard or inadequate equipment to front-line forces who desperately needed reliable technology.

Russian special services actively exploited Ukrainian mobilization challenges, recruiting citizens to film and publicize incidents involving draft officers or to conduct attacks that could be portrayed as domestic resistance to conscription. The Security Service of Ukraine reported identifying 497 people who had committed arson or were preparing terrorist attacks near territorial recruitment centers. These Russian-orchestrated incidents aimed to disguise themselves as legitimate acts of dissent, undermining internal support for mobilization efforts that were already strained by documented problems with corruption, abuse, and inadequate training.

United States Policy Shifts Under Trump Administration

February marked a dramatic transformation in United States policy toward Ukraine, with the Trump administration reversing longstanding positions and creating profound uncertainty about continued American support for Ukrainian defense. The policy shifts began immediately after Trump's January 20 inauguration but accelerated throughout February, culminating in the White House confrontation and subsequent aid suspensions.

On February 24, exactly three years after Russia's full-scale invasion began, the United States aligned with Russia at the United Nations, voting against a European-backed General Assembly resolution condemning Russia and demanding withdrawal of its troops from Ukraine. This vote represented a stark departure from previous American positions and signaled willingness to break with European allies on core Ukraine policy questions. The vote shocked Ukrainian officials and European partners, who had not been consulted before the United States changed its position.

Trump's rhetoric toward Ukrainian leadership grew increasingly hostile throughout the month. After rejecting earlier versions of the minerals agreement, Trump criticized Zelenskyy on Truth Social, accusing Ukraine of starting the war and calling Zelenskyy a dictator for not holding elections, despite Ukrainian constitutional provisions prohibiting elections during martial law. Trump repeated Russian talking points, suggesting that Ukraine bore responsibility for the conflict that began with Russia's illegal invasion.

United States Defense Secretary Pete Hegseth told European leaders in Brussels during February that Ukraine joining NATO was not a realistic outcome of any negotiated settlement, directly contradicting one of Kyiv's key security requests. This position eliminated what Ukrainian officials considered essential protection against future Russian aggression. Without NATO membership or equivalent security guarantees, Ukrainian leaders feared that any ceasefire would merely give Russia time to regroup before launching another invasion once international attention waned.

Trump's approach to peace negotiations explicitly excluded Ukrainian participation in key discussions. He stated that he did not think Zelenskyy was very important to be at meetings, arguing that the Ukrainian president had been there for three years and made deals very hard. This position suggested Trump intended to negotiate Ukraine's future with Russia directly, over the heads of Ukrainian officials, in what critics compared to the Yalta agreement at the end of World War II when great powers divided Europe without consulting affected nations.

European Response and Support

As American support wavered, European nations intensified their assistance to Ukraine while expressing growing concerns about Trump administration policies. The divergence between American and European positions created new complexities in the Western coalition supporting Ukraine's defense, though it also prompted European countries to increase their independent capabilities and commitments.

Throughout February, European leaders voiced support for Zelenskyy following the White House confrontation. These statements, many explicitly or implicitly critical of Trump's approach, reflected European determination to maintain support for Ukraine regardless of American policy shifts. French President Emmanuel Macron had intervened to prevent Trump from canceling Zelenskyy's Washington visit one week before the scheduled meeting, demonstrating European willingness to challenge American decisions affecting Ukraine policy.

European military and financial assistance continued flowing to Ukraine despite the American aid suspension. Multiple European countries announced or delivered weapons systems, ammunition, and financial support packages during February. However, European officials recognized that no combination of European support could fully replace American military assistance in the short term, particularly regarding advanced weapons systems, intelligence sharing, and the sheer scale of aid that the United States had previously provided.

The Munich Security Conference in mid-February provided a venue for European and Ukrainian officials to coordinate responses to shifting American policy. Vice President Vance's appearance at the conference, occurring the same day as the Chornobyl attack, generated significant tensions as European leaders challenged American positions on Ukraine. The conference illustrated growing transatlantic divisions over how to approach the conflict and what terms would constitute an acceptable settlement.

Russian Military Strategy and Political Positioning

Russia's military strategy throughout February reflected confidence in its improving position and belief that time favored Moscow's objectives. The combination of incremental territorial gains, sustained pressure on Ukrainian energy infrastructure, and emerging divisions within the Western coalition supporting Ukraine created conditions Russian leadership viewed as increasingly favorable for achieving war aims through negotiation backed by military facts on the ground.

The large-scale troop redeployments reported in February indicated Russian preparations for intensified offensive operations aimed at capturing remaining parts of Donetsk region. Russian forces withdrew units from Kharkiv, Sumy, and even Kherson regions to concentrate striking power for what propagandists described as a decisive breakthrough to seize Pokrovsk, Kramatorsk, and Sloviansk. These redeployments included what Russian media characterized as elite units from the 40th and 155th Marine Brigades, the 177th Marine Regiment, the 11th and 76th Airborne Assault Brigades, and the 70th Motorized Rifle Regiment.

Russian diplomatic positioning emphasized that Moscow would only accept negotiations on its own terms. Following reports of Trump-Putin communications, Russian officials made clear that they expected Ukraine to surrender territory Russia did not currently occupy and accept limits on future military capabilities. Russian President Vladimir Putin and senior officials repeatedly rejected American negotiating terms that fell short of Russian demands, maintaining that Russia's war objectives remained unchanged despite three years of costly warfare.

Russia's information warfare strategy during February focused on exploiting divisions within the Western coalition and portraying American pressure on Ukraine as validation of Russian positions. State media emphasized Trump's criticism of Zelenskyy and highlighted the White House confrontation as evidence that Western support for Ukraine was collapsing. Russian diplomats and officials praised Trump's approach while continuing to attack Zelenskyy personally, seeking to isolate the Ukrainian leader and create perception that resistance to Russian demands was futile.

The Path Forward: Uncertainty and Risk

February 2025 ended with Ukraine's strategic situation characterized by profound uncertainty across military, diplomatic, and political dimensions. The combination of grinding Russian advances on the battlefield, systematic destruction of energy infrastructure, wavering American support, and pressure for negotiations on unfavorable terms created the most challenging environment Ukraine had faced since the early months of the war.

Militarily, Ukraine maintained defensive positions across most of the front line but faced relentless pressure from Russian forces that enjoyed advantages in manpower, artillery ammunition, and air power. The redeployment of Russian forces suggested preparation for major offensive operations aimed at capturing key cities in Donetsk region. Ukrainian forces demonstrated continuing ability to conduct precision strikes against Russian command posts and military infrastructure, but these tactical successes could not alter the fundamental imbalance in available resources.

Diplomatically, Ukraine found itself caught between American pressure to accept negotiations without adequate security guarantees and European support that, while politically valuable, could not fully replace American military assistance. The breakdown of the Trump-Zelenskyy meeting and subsequent aid suspension demonstrated Ukraine's vulnerability to shifts in American policy. Zelenskyy's insistence on security guarantees before agreeing to any ceasefire reflected hard-learned lessons about Russian reliability, but this position risked further alienating the Trump administration.

The Chornobyl attack illustrated Russia's willingness to create nuclear safety risks to achieve military and political objectives. The strike occurred at a moment when Russia sought to demonstrate its ability to escalate while simultaneously portraying itself as ready for peace negotiations. This combination of threats and diplomatic overtures represented classic Russian strategic culture, using the threat of catastrophic consequences to pressure adversaries toward accepting Moscow's terms.

Ukraine's resilience throughout three years of war demonstrated extraordinary national unity and military effectiveness against a much larger adversary. However, February's events revealed the limits of what Ukraine could achieve without sustained international support. The energy infrastructure attacks showed vulnerability to systematic Russian strikes. The mobilization challenges illustrated demographic constraints that would only worsen with time. The diplomatic crisis exposed dependence on American political decisions that Ukrainian officials could influence but not control.

As winter slowly gave way to spring, Ukraine faced the prospect of another year of grinding warfare, continued civilian suffering, and uncertain international support. The combination of Russian military pressure, energy infrastructure destruction, and shifting Western policies created conditions for what some observers feared could become acceptance of an unjust peace that legitimized territorial conquest and left Ukraine vulnerable to future aggression. Yet Ukrainian determination to maintain sovereignty and territorial integrity remained unshaken, even as the costs of resistance continued mounting and the path to achieving these goals grew less clear.