Syria - Politics
| President [various titles] | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Maamun Shafiq al-Kuzbari | 29 Sep 1961 | 20 Nov 1961 | Non-party |
| Izzat al-Nuss | 20 Nov 1961 | 14 Dec 1961 | Mil |
| Nazim al-Kudsi | 14 Dec 1961 | 8 Mar 1963 | HS |
| Abdul Karim Zahreddine | 28 Mar 1962 | 13 Apr 1962 | Mil |
| Louai bin Ahmad Sami al-Atassi | 23 Mar 1963 | 27 Jul 1963 | Mil/Baath |
| Muhammad Amin al-Hafez | 27 Jul 1963 | 23 Feb 1966 | Mil/Baath |
| Ahmad Nureddin bin Muhammad Ali al-Atassi | 25 Feb 1966 | 18 Nov 1970 | Mil/Baath |
| Sayyid Ahmad al-Hasan al-Khatib | 18 Nov 1970 | 22 Feb 1971 | Baath |
| Hafez Ali Sulayman al-Assad | 22 Feb 1971 | 10 Jun 2000 | Mil/Baath; |
| Abdul Halim Said Khaddam | 10 Jun 2000 | 17 Jul 2000 | Baath+NPF |
| Bashar Hafez al-Assad | 17 Jul 2000 | 08 Dec 2024 | Baath+NPF |
| Abu Mohammed al-Joulani | 08 Dec 2024 | xxxx 20xx | |
Reports of former regime officials being executed in Syria have to be understood in the context of what Bashar al-Assad’s government did to Syrians says one campaigner, following videos of crowds gathering to watch public hangings.
Alongside the establishment of a transitional council comes the achievement of transitional justice, which the commander-in-chief of the new Syrian administration, Ahmed al-Sharaa , pledged would take its course. He vowed not to hesitate in holding accountable the criminals, murderers, security officers, and army involved in torturing the Syrian people, stressing that they would be pursued and requested from the countries to which they fled to be held accountable.
He said that the “blood and rights” of innocent dead and detained people “will not be wasted or forgotten,” but at the same time he stressed his commitment to “forgiving those whose hands are not stained with the blood of the Syrian people.” This step reflects the realization that random revenge is also not appropriate and may cause many problems, and that reassurances can play an important role at this stage. For its part, the Political Affairs Department of the Syrian opposition stressed that the next stage requires comprehensive societal reconciliation, during which trust is built between the various components of Syrian society, based on the principles of justice and respect for human rights.
The situation in Syria now differs from other countries in which the foundations of the state are clear, including a constitution, a specific form of sovereignty, a political system, and geographical borders. As a result of the revolution, Syria has become without an approved constitution, a political system, or clear borders, and this poses a major challenge to the new authorities. On the other hand, the current Syrian opposition is characterised by a diversity of spectrums between armed factions with Islamic and ideological references, in addition to liberal political forces, and this diversity represents a challenge to reaching consensus on the form of the future state.
The commander of military operations in Syria, Ahmed al-Sharaa, told Al Arabiya and Al Hadath 14 December 2024, that the state is not supposed to be led with a revolutionary mentality, and there is a need for a law and a state of institutions. “We will exploit this stage to serve the Syrians and build the future.” Regarding running for the elections, “My presence in Damascus is enough for now. We will not give up what we have done over the years.”
He pointed out that the ousted President Bashar al-Assad was ordering the head of the Central Bank to print the currency without guarantees. In the context of its efforts to maintain security within the country, the Operations Department in Syria issued a new statement calling for the return of public property within a week starting now. The Military Operations Department confirmed that it will hold accountable anyone proven to be involved in concealing public property.
Ahmed al-Sharaa (also referred to as al-Julani), the leader of Hayat Tahrir al-Sham, whose forces deposed former Syrian President Bashar al-Assad less than a week ago, says his group is communicating with Western embassies as it tries to restore governance in Syria.
- Our goals are clear and our plans are ready for construction and development in Syria.
- We have plans to address the systematic destruction practised by the regime.
- Damascus is lagging in all aspects of what we have achieved in Idlib Governorate.
- Based on our administrative experience in Idlib, we will advance in the rest of the country’s governorates.
Regarding the components of Syrian society, he said that the new administration has “relations with Christians and Druze, and they fought with us within the military operations administration,” noting in the same context that there is a difference between Kurdish society and what he called the “PKK” organization, in reference to the Kurdistan Workers’ Party.
Al-Sharaa said that the transitional government has systematic plans to address the systematic destruction practiced by the regime of ousted President Bashar al-Assad , and that the goals of the new administration are clear and its plans are ready for construction and development.
Prime Minister Mohamed al-Bashir, after his appointment on 10 December 2024, called on Syrians in exile to return, pledging to "guarantee the rights of all people and all sects." About six million Syrians, a quarter of the population, have fled the country during 13 years of civil war that has left more than half a million dead. In Aleppo, where the Christian population has dwindled to about 30,000 since 2011, Father Bahjat said he understood the concerns about the new government, “but on the ground we have not suffered discrimination.”
The European Union announced the launch of a humanitarian air bridge to Syria via Turkey, after the World Food Programme launched an urgent appeal to raise $250 million to provide "food aid" to needy Syrians. The United Nations has registered more than a million new displaced people since the offensive by the factions led by Hayat Tahrir al-Sham. For its part, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees in Syria said the new authorities had sent a “constructive signal” by asking them to stay in Syria and continue their work.
"We will not hesitate to hold accountable the criminals, murderers, security and army officers involved in torturing the Syrian people," rebel leader Abu Mohammed al-Golani, now using his real name Ahmed al-Sharaa, said 10 December 2024 in a statement on Telegram. He added that the incoming authorities will announce a list of former senior officials accused of torture. "We will offer rewards to anyone who provides information about senior army and security officers involved in war crimes," he said, adding the incoming authorities would seek the return of officials who have fled abroad.
Syria's new caretaker prime minister, Mohammed al-Bashir, told Al Jazeera that he's been meeting with members of the transitional government. "We invited members from the old government and some directors from the administration in Idlib and its surrounding areas in order to facilitate all the necessary works for the next two months until we have a constitutional system to be able to serve the Syrian people," al-Bashir said. He added that the time had come for Syrians "to enjoy stability and calm" after nearly 14 years of war.
The transfer of power in the new regime seemed low-risk. However, the main challenge lay in how long a new government can remain stable and whether it can survive the frictions between different factions. Foreign influences and interventions could also further exacerbate divisions and infighting, testing the new government's viability. Forces led by the Hayat Tahrir al-Sham (HTS), which has advanced into the capital, have a strong religious orientation, and while it has shown signs of adjustment in recent years, it remains uncertain whether it can evolve into a moderate and inclusive leadership force.
The United Nations' special envoy for Syria Geir Pedersen said on 10 December 2024 that it was essential transitional arrangements following the ouster of Bashar Assad be as inclusive as possible, also including organisations like the victorious HTS rebel army, which the UN has labelled a terrorist group. "It is now nine years since that resolution (declaring HTS's predecessor a terrorist group) was adopted," he told a briefing at the UN's Geneva headquarters. "The reality is so far that HTS and also the other armed groups have been sending good messages to the Syrian people ... of unity, of inclusiveness."
He cautioned against calls to start repatriating the many refugees who have fled Syria over its past 13 years of conflict, stressing that the situation remained "fluid", with conflict continuing in the northeast and Israeli incursions. "It is extremely important that we don't see any action from any international actor that destroys the possibility for this transformation in Syria to take place," he added, with reference to Israeli moves to extend a buffer zone inside the country.
The words of Hadi al-Bahra, head of the Syrian National Coalition, carried a tone of hope for a new chapter in the country’s history. He stated, “The situation is safe. The dark times in Syria have ended, and there is no place for vengeance in the new Syria.” This declaration sought to reassure the population and highlight the opposition’s intent to avoid reprisals. Yet, behind the facade of such statements lies an undeniable anxiety about Syria’s future – its political fate and stability amid a period of profound transformation. A new day has dawned for the country, but whether it will bring peace remains an unanswered question.
Fadl Abdulghani, the director of the Syrian Network for Human Rights (SNHR), said the organisation has documented over 6,000 regime officers involved in war crimes under Bashar al Assad’s regime. In an interview with Anadolu Agency, Abdulghani called for the prosecution of all those involved, urging Syria’s new government to swiftly establish a national court for this purpose. He warned that without justice, anger could lead to revenge from the families of victims.
Syrian Network for Human Rights says regime forces detained at least 1.2 million Syrians during the civil war and subjected them to various torture methods. The regime's torture centers were categorised as civilian prisons, military prisons, secret, unofficial detention centres, and security unit interrogation centres.
Some of the rebels’ most notable promises were made to ethnic and religious minorities in Syria, including Kurds, Alawites, Christians, and Shiites. The Salvation Government declared that no minority would face genocide or persecution for their views and beliefs, since they are an integral part of the Syrian nation. It also said that inclusivity is the strength, not the weakness, of the future Syria. In addressing the Kurds, the rebels condemned the barbaric practices of ISIS, such as murder, slavery, and other brutal actions committed against the Kurdish population by jihadists. They also guaranteed the safety of Syrian soldiers who laid down their arms and surrendered.
These statements by the Salvation Government and the HTS leader, Abu Mohammad al-Julani, were met with enthusiasm by prominent experts of Islamic radicalism and fundamentalism. They praised al-Julani’s professionalism, transparency, and moderate views, and the fact that he distanced himself from his jihadist roots.
HTS and allied opposition groups soon released dozens of videos demonstrating executions of members of Arab-Kurdish forces, Syrian soldiers (even those who surrendered voluntarily), Alawites, and Shiites. In several video clips, militants are seen slitting the throats of their captives. Additionally, there are videos of the rebels hunting down former soldiers, which they refer to as “patrolling” or “clearing” an area. Mostly, their targets are shot on the spot. In addition, the rebels have published dozens of video messages threatening various minorities and neighboring countries. Some of them claim that the coup in Syria gives them the freedom to destroy Israel and liberate Palestinian territories.
Columns of HTS strike forces and their closest allies, including Uyghur and other foreign fighters, continued to arrive in Damascus from the north of the country, consolidating their control over the capital by force. In turn, the state media, which came under the control of the new authorities, have already begun to create an image of the HTS leader as the new leader of the nation.
The decisive step in consolidating the HTS leadership at this initial stage was the appointment of their man, Muhammad al-Bashir, as the head of the interim government of Syria, who previously headed the government of national salvation in the HTS-controlled territories of Idlib. Other former opposition groups may not like this, but everyone understands that HTS is now the most combat-ready force among them, and many have learned a very painful lesson in this from their clashes with HTS in previous years.
Naturally, no one knew exactly what will happen next, especially since the positions of the remaining terrorists from ISIS will probably strengthen in the Syrian desert, many of whose supporters were released from prisons in various cities of Syria along with other militants and criminals. Economic problems will be a serious test for HTS leadership, yes, they previously managed to manage Idlib quite well with the support of Turkey, but now most of the country has come under their control, and Iran, which provided Syria with multi-billion dollar aid under the previous government, has already cut off this aid.
Despite conciliatory statements addressed to religious minorities by the new authorities, tension and fears among them are growing, especially since more and more videos of extrajudicial executions of former military personnel, militias, officials, etc. have begun to appear. Here it is necessary to note that the new authorities declared an amnesty only for those military personnel who were called up for compulsory service, and the bulk of conscripts were Sunni Arabs. But no amnesty applied to officers, contract soldiers, militias, etc., and this immediately put on the hook for possible persecution a huge part of the Alawites and representatives of some other minorities, who themselves or their relatives formed the backbone of professional military personnel, were participants in militias, etc.
At the same time, the Alawites were clearly demoralized and perhaps a breakdown has occurred among them, caused by the fact that they, being the core of the most combat-ready forces of the Syrian army, have suffered disproportionately high losses since 2011. For example, the city of Tartus, populated mainly by Alawites, was often called the "mother of martyrs" in the mid-2010s, since proportionally to the population, more people died there fighting for their president than in any other large city in Syria.
The Biden Administration announced its recognition and support for a new Syrian government that meets specific criteria: rejection of terrorism, destruction of chemical weapons stockpiles, and protection of minority and women’s rights. The statement, issued by U.S. Secretary of State Antony Blinken, reaffirmed the United States’ commitment to a political transition in Syria aimed at establishing reliable, inclusive, and non-sectarian governance. “The transitional process and the new government must adhere to clear commitments to fully respect minority rights, facilitate humanitarian aid for all in need, prevent Syria from being used as a base for terrorism or as a threat to its neighbors, and ensure the safe destruction of any remaining chemical and biological weapons,” Blinken emphasized.
Colin Clarke, director of policy and research at the New York-based Soufan Group intelligence consultancy, said that if Syria's new rulers manage to effectively run the country, it would serve as a "real momentum boost" for Islamist groups. "To the leadership in U.A.E. and Saudi Arabia, there is a concern that the takeover of Syria by HTS will energize Islamists in those countries, and if [Sharaa] succeeds in governing, it will be proof of concept for groups like the Muslim Brotherhood," he added. Both the U.A.E. and Saudi Arabia view Islamist movements as existential threats to their monarchies and political systems.
2025 Clashes
Starting on 06 March 2025, clashes broke out in the coastal province of Latakia between Assad loyalists and security forces belonging to the new government led by Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham leader and Syrian interim president Ahmed al-Sharaa. The fighting, as of two days later, was reported to have left over 1,000 dead. According to the UK-based Syrian Observatory for Human Rights the casualties included 745 civilians, 125 Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham (HTS) personnel and 148 Assad loyalists. The fighting came after continued crackdown operation by HTS militants on remnants of Assad's military forces in the provinces of Latakia, Tartus, and Hama., and reportedly provoked a wave of revenge killings on Friday, with armed militants targeting the Alawite minority in Hama and Latakia provinces.
Heavy clashes were reported to be ongoing in the outskirts of Tartus, a major port city on the Mediterranean coast, as of 09 March 2025, with a curfew enforced in Homs, Latakia, and Tartus due to ongoing fighting.
The fighting followed warnings the previous week by Turkish Foreign Minister Hakan Fidan against attempts by Iran to destabilize the new Syrian government by supporting local proxy forces there, saying "If [Iranian] policy continues this way, I do not think that it will be the right policy. If by supporting a group in another country, you are trying to cause anxiety in a third country - other countries can also disturb you by supporting groups in your own country".
In return, Iran summoned the Turkish ambassador to Iran and admonish "Turkish officials to avoid making incorrect comments that would sow discord between the two nations."
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