Final Environmental Impact Statement for the Nevada Test Site and Off-Site Locations

Chapter 2

PURPOSE AND NEED FOR DOE ACTION

Among the major responsibilities of the DOE are the continued stewardship of the nation’s nuclear weapons stockpile and the maintenance of a testing capability. The purpose and need for the proposed actions analyzed in this EIS arise in part from those responsibilities. The DOE proposes to continue managing the NTS and its many resources in a manner consistent with national needs during a period in which the missions of the DOE and the NTS continue to evolve.

2.1 Background

Historically, the primary mission of the NTS was to conduct nuclear weapons tests. Since the current moratorium on testing began in October 1992, this mission has changed to maintain a readiness to conduct tests, if so directed, in the future. The NTS, because of its favorable environment and infrastructure, has also supported DOE waste management, as well as other national-security-related research, development, and testing programs. With the end of the Cold War, the United States is now challenged with a complete re-evaluation of its national security needs and priorities in a way that emphasizes the nation’s commitment to a comprehensive ban on nuclear weapons testing and reduction of the global nuclear danger.

This EIS is being prepared pursuant to DOE regulations (10 CFR Part 1021) and is part of a long-term management process. The first step in this process is evaluating all actions planned for the NTS, defining the baseline environment, and identifying potential impacts that might occur as a result of the planned actions. Beyond these elements common to all EISs, this document also serves as the framework for developing a long-term Resource Management Plan for the NTS.

This EIS represents one level of a tiered management process. Tiering refers to the coverage of general matter in broader environmental impact statements, such as national program statements, with subsequent narrower environmental statements or analyses, such as project or site-specific statements. The narrower statement incorporates by reference the general discussions of the broader statement and concentrates solely on the issues specific to the statement subsequently prepared. For the NTS EIS, such documents as the Waste Management Programmatic EIS or the Stockpile Stewardship and Management Programmatic EIS address broader national issues and include the NTS as a potential location for implementing an action considered in the program. The NTS EIS evaluates the impacts of those potential decisions. Similarly, actions considered in the NTS EIS may, at a later time, be more explicitly analyzed in an environmental assessment which could address only the narrower topic being considered without restating information contained in the NTS EIS.

Evolution of National Policy
The alternatives considered in this EIS reflect the importance of the NTS within the overall national defense policy. Over the last 4 years, major shifts in policy have occurred. These shifts are highlighted below.
Date	EVENT/POLICY CHANGE
September 1991	The President made the first of three announcements on significant reductions in the nuclear weapons stockpile.
September 1992	The last underground nuclear test was performed at the NTS.
October 1992	The President signed a 9-month moratorium, stopping all nuclear testing until July 1993.
July 1993	The President announced an extension of the moratorium and directed the DOE to develop alternative means for a stockpile stewardship program.
November 1993	Congress, through the National Defense Authorization Act (Public Law 103-160) instructed the Secretary of Energy to "establish a stewardship program to ensure the preservation of the core intellectual and technical competencies of the United States in nuclear weapons."
May 1995	The Nonproliferation Treaty was extended indefinitely.
August 1995	The President announced the decision to seek a zero-yield Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty and established the conduct of a science-based stockpile stewardship program as a condition of the United States’ entry into the treaty. Maintenance of a safe and reliable stockpile is considered "a supreme national interest of the United States."

Between the issuance of this EIS as a final document and the first planned review, there will, no doubt, be new activities identified that were not considered. Each of these actions will be evaluated on a case-by-case basis, and a tiered National Environmental Policy Act document will be prepared if necessary. Tiered documents include supplemental EISs and environmental assessments. As a hypothetical example, during the planned investigations of the Underground Testing Area’s Corrective Action Unit, it might be necessary to conduct some type of land-disturbing test that was not considered in this EIS. If the hypothetical test required the collection of deep seismic data using shallow boreholes and high explosives, the specific impacts and consequences of performing the seismic study would be evaluated and documented in a tiered report. If the environmental consequences were projected to be significant, a supplemental EIS might be prepared that would address only the specific proposed test and its alternatives.

On the other hand, some new actions could trigger a National Environmental Policy Act review as a result of regulatory requirements, and a tiered National Environmental Policy Act document might not be sufficient. In such instances, a National Environmental Policy Act compliance review would be performed and, if necessary, a separate EIS prepared. In other instances, the new action might be included in future reviews and updates of this EIS.

This EIS provides tiered project-specific National Environmental Policy Act documentation for two facilities at the NTS. Appendix F analyzes the continued and potential expanded use of the Big Explosives Experimental Facility. Appendix J presents classified information for activities conducted at the Lyner Complex. The environmental impacts of the activities are not classified and are discussed in the appropriate sections of Chapter 5 .

In addition to National Environmental Policy Act documents, other analyses that deal with the human environment are used to support DOE decisionmaking and public participation processes. These other documents include Safety Analysis Reports, Safety Evaluation Reports, Hazard Analyses, Human Health Risk Assessments, Transportation Studies, Environmental Restoration Assessments, Performance Evaluations, and Performance Assessments. Some of these studies perform very focused and specific functions with respect to decisionmaking, and are triggered when an appropriate stage of the project is reached. When these other studies precede or are concurrent with a National Environmental Policy Act document and are relevant to the analysis, their findings are incorporated into the National Environmental Policy Act document. These analytical processes and their relationship to the NTS EIS are discussed further in Section 2.5 with the exception of the Safety Analysis Reports, Safety Evaluation Reports, and Hazard Analysis. These three analyses are designed to identify and resolve sources of potential injury to workers and are disclosed in National Environmental Policy Act documents.

2.2 Policy Considerations

In responding to the nation's need to ensure the safety, security, and reliability of the nuclear weapons stockpile, the DOE must consider national deterrence and stockpile stewardship policies. The NTS plays an integral part in helping the DOE meet this mission, and the policies outlined below are a major factor in developing the long-term management framework for the NTS.

A moratorium on nuclear weapons testing is currently in effect. In September 1992, Congress imposed a 9-month moratorium on underground nuclearweapons testing. President Clinton has extended the moratorium on three occasions. The latest extension occurred in January 1995, and continues the moratorium through September 1996. Under the moratorium, President Clinton directed the DOE to maintain the capability to conduct nuclear tests. On August 11, 1995, President Clinton reaffirmed this commitment and announced his intention to seek a zero-yield Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty. A zero-yield Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty would ban any nuclear weapon test explosion or any other nuclear explosion. President Clinton also established specific safeguards that define the conditions under which the United States can enter into a Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty. These safeguards are as follows:

The conduct of a science-based stockpile stewardship program to ensure a high level of confidence in the safety and reliability of nuclear weapons in the active stockpile, including the conduct of a broad range of effective and continuing experimental programs
The maintenance of modern nuclear laboratory facilities and programs in theoretical and exploratory nuclear technology that would attract, retain, and ensure the continued application of our human scientific resources to those programs upon which continued progress in nuclear technology depends
The maintenance of the basic capability to resume nuclear test activities prohibited by the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty should the United States cease to be bound to adhere to such a treaty
The continuation of a comprehensive research and development program to improve treaty-monitoring capabilities and operations
The continuing development of a broad range of intelligence gathering and analytical capabilities and operations to ensure accurate and comprehensive information on worldwide nuclear arsenals, nuclear weapons development programs, and related nuclear programs
The understanding that if the President of the United States is informed by the Secretary of Defense and the Secretary of Energy, advised by the Nuclear Weapons Council, the Directors of DOE's nuclear weapons laboratories, and the Commander of the U.S. Strategic Command, that a high level of confidence in the safety and reliability of a nuclear weapon type that the two Secretaries consider to be critical to our nuclear deterrent could no longer be certified, the President, in consultation with Congress, would be prepared to withdraw from the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty under the standard "supreme national interest" clause in order to conduct whatever testing might be required.

The NTS has a demonstrated or potential role in implementing each of these Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty safeguard elements. For example, the NTS’s role in the implementation of the first of these safeguards is to participate in full partnership, for a common purpose, with the scientific and academic communities, business and industry, and stakeholders to advance the NTS as a valued national resource. The NTS provides the modern nuclear laboratory platform for theoretical and exploratory nuclear technology that can attract and retain the human scientific resources required for continued progress in nuclear technology development. As the nation moves away from full-scale nuclear testing, the DOE must enhance its capability to use other tools to predict weapons safety, performance, and reliability. In particular, the DOE must enhance its capability to perform zero-yield science-based stockpile stewardship. Uncertainty in the behavior of aging stockpiled weapons will continue to increase with time and in the absence of testing (Thorn and Westervelt, 1987). To ensure continued confidence in the safety and reliability of the United States’ nuclear weapons stockpile, the DOE needs to maintain the basic capability to conduct underground nuclear testing activities should a situation arise from unanticipated technical problems in the enduring stockpile. To maintain this capability, the National Laboratories have identified 33 already drilled vertical holes, which are an inventory of potential sites for stockpile stewardship exercises and experiments.

The DOE also needs to enhance itscapability to perform dynamic experiments (including subcritical experiments involving special nuclear materials) and hydrodynamic tests to assess the condition and behavior of nuclear weapons.

The NTS, through its Work for Others Program, has supported the stewardship programs since their inception. For example, in support of improved treaty-monitoring capabilities, chemical explosions at the NTS are being used to develop and calibrate seismic and hydrodynamic detection and analysis techniques (e.g., Chemical Kiloton and Kuchen experiments). Sensitive isotope analysis techniques, derived from nuclear chemistry applications to tests, are being developed for treaty monitoring and intelligence analysis. Development is being advanced by analysis of underground test residue and environmental studies at the NTS. Ongoing NTS activities that support the development of intelligence gathering and analytic capabilities include projects conducted at the Spill Test Facility, a demonstrated test bed for developing remote sensors for nonproliferation, environmental, and other national security programs. Non-nuclear high-explosive experiments at the NTS support design calculations for technologies that would disarm improvised nuclear devices, thereby preventing nuclear yield (see Appendix F).

In its Programmatic EIS for the Stockpile Stewardship and Management Program, the DOE is examining the future missions and configurations of the nuclear weapons complex (60 FR 31291). The Programmatic EIS will address the long-term capabilities required to carry out the DOE’s Stockpile Stewardship and Management Program, as well as site the locations of these activities. Under this Programmatic EIS, the NTS is a candidate for future increased missions, as well as continuing operations. Until the Record of Decision for that Programmatic EIS is issued and the decisions are implemented, the DOE must continue its defense mission in light of the changes in stockpile stewardship and the continued moratorium on nuclear weapons testing.

Environmental restoration and waste management have been part of NTS operations since the beginningof the nation’s nuclear testing program. Early restoration efforts were focused on cleaning detonation locales in order to reuse them for subsequent tests. The generated debris was disposed of through the on-site Waste Management Program. A formalized Waste Management Program commenced at the NTS in 1961. An inventory of radioactive waste has accumulated at numerous sites throughout the DOE complex through several decades of the Cold War. Beginning in 1976, some Defense Program radioactive waste generated at the Mound, Ohio, site was disposed of at the NTS. Increasing attention to the complexwide inventory brought more waste from a greater number of DOE sites to the NTS for disposal. Low-level waste has been generated through the weapons development, testing, and production activities at DOE facilities as well as the environmental cleanup and restoration programs. As DOE missions have changed, there has been an increasing volume of waste generated through the environmental restoration activities. This increase will continue into the future.

While the NTS does not currently accept transuranic or mixed waste from other sites, the management of low-level, mixed, and transuranic wastes generated at the NTS and other DOE-approved facilities across the United States has been an ongoing mission of the NTS. Wastes have been and are now generated as a result of a variety of DOE activities, including nuclear energy research, defense projects, and, more recently, as a result of environmental restoration activities. This waste must be disposed of in accordance with applicable regulations and DOE orders. The DOE has a need to continue providing the practical, cost-effective, and environmentally sound means of low-level waste disposal offered by the NTS.

Another change in NTS mission priorities is evidenced by an increase in environmental restoration efforts. Environmental restoration activities are planned for various sites at the NTS and other test locations in Nevada. Through 1992, there have been 928 nuclear tests conducted on the NTS; no nuclear tests have been conducted since entering into the moratorium. Defense research and weapons-test verification activities were also conducted at theProject Shoal Area and the Central Nevada Test Area. From 1957 to 1963, several safety tests were conducted at sites at the NTS, the NAFR Complex, and the Tonopah Test Range to test the safety of nuclear weapons in accident situations. Because these tests were not contained and used special nuclear materials and chemical explosives, they resulted in the release of radioactive materials and surface contamination. The DOE must develop site remediation goals and cleanup levels for the NTS and off-site test areas based on future land use and management goals for the protection of environmental resources. The DOE is working in cooperation with other agencies to define remediation and cleanup levels to ensure that the disposition of withdrawn lands is consistent with the controlling agencies’ existing land-use or resource management plans.

2.3 Purpose and Need for DOE Action

As a result of the changing mission priorities discussed in the preceding sections, the DOE has a need to focus on new national security, energy, and environmental issues challenging the nation and to redefine the role of the NTS within the DOE complex.

Other changes in DOE policy regarding land and facility use require the DOE to manage all its land and facilities as valuable national resources, with stewardship based on the principles of ecosystem management and sustainable development. This policy has resulted in the need for a comprehensive plan for the NTS that will guide land- and facility-use decisions and integrate mission, economic, ecologic, social, and cultural factors. As the first step in the development of such a comprehensive plan, the DOE has developed the framework of a Resource Management Plan for the NTS that will benefit from the public participation and review afforded by the National Environmental Policy Act process (see Volume 2).

The purpose of the Resource Management Plan document is to publicize how the DOE/NV proposes to develop and use a Resource Management Plan forthe NTS so the public can comment on and assist with:

Developing the methods for creating and using the plan
Identifying the values people place on manmade and natural resources found on the NTS
Developing the goals DOE/NV will use to guide the conservation and use of those resources
Identifying the management actions needed to meet constraints and resource management goals
Incorporating the principles of ecosystem management into land and resource management on the NTS.

The framework for the Resource Management Plan is being developed in conjunction with the NTS EIS to take advantage of the extensive data collection and public participation activities associated with the National Environmental Policy Act. Following receipt of public information during the comment period for the Draft NTS EIS, the DOE/NV revised this description of the Resource Management Plan in order to publish the revision with the Final NTS EIS. The revision includes the goals the DOE/NV has developed for managing resources and land-use constraints. The revision also includes the final plans for developing the Resource Management Plan. These plans will guide the DOE/NV as it develops a Resource Management Plan in the coming years.

2.4 Nevada Test Site Programs

For review purposes, the projects and activities at the NTS have been categorized into five programs: Defense, Waste Management, Environmental Restoration, Nondefense Research and Development, and Work for Others. Services, such as fire protection and communications, for each of these programs are provided through the NTS support services infrastructure. Brief summaries of each program are presented in this section.

Programs Conducted at the NTS
The DOE accomplishes its mission at the NTS through the management of activities that are organized into five programs:
Defense - The primary mission of this program is stockpile stewardship, including the maintenance of readiness to conduct underground nuclear tests, if directed.
Waste Management - This program provides for the safe and permanent disposal of waste through either disposal on the NTS or to off-site commercial waste treatment or disposal facilities.
Environmental Restoration - The goal of this program is to identify contaminated areas and clean-up those areas, as appropriate.
Nondefense Research and Development - This program includes original research efforts by the DOE, universities, industry, and other federal agencies.
Work for Others - This program provides for the use of NTS areas and facilities by other groups and agencies for activities such as military training exercises.

2.4.1 Defense Program

The primary mission of the Defense Program at the NTS is to help ensure the safety and reliability of the nation's nuclear weapons stockpile. The NTS has a long history of participating in the Stockpile Stewardship Program. This stewardship program includes maintaining the readiness and capability to conduct underground nuclear weapons tests and conducting such tests if so directed by the President or Congress. Other aspects of stockpile stewardship include conventional high-explosive tests, dynamic experiments (including subcritical experiments), and hydrodynamic testing. Although the term "subcritical" was not used in previous EISs for the NTS, some tests or experiments conducted over the past decades, as well as the impacts of those tests or experiments, are substantially the same as those contemplated by the new terminology. The term "subcritical experiments," rather than defining a new form of activity, is intended instead to clarify the factthat such experiments involving the use of special nuclear material would not achieve the condition of criticality.

Historically, the nation's nuclear emergency response capability has been based at the NTS. The Nuclear Emergency Search Team maintains the readiness to respond to any type of nuclear emergency, including search and identification for lost or stolen weapons, and conducts training exercises related to nuclear bomb threats and radiation dispersal threats.

The NTS has also been a key site for past efforts in the areas of nuclear nonproliferation and verification of international treaties. This work was exemplified recently by the Joint Treaty Verification Project, a cooperative effort between the United States and the former Soviet Union.

2.4.2 Waste Management Program

The NTS presently serves as a disposal site for low-level waste generated by DOE defense-related facilities and also as a storage site for a limited amount of transuranic mixed wastes pending opening of the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant in New Mexico. Waste Management Program activities are conducted in four primary NTS areas: Areas 3, 5, 6, and 11. Areas 3 and 5 are the two existing radioactive waste management sites at the NTS.

The Area 3 Radioactive Waste Management Site accepts bulk and packaged low-level waste for disposal.
The Area 5 Radioactive Waste Management Site accepts low-level waste and NTS-generated mixed waste for disposal, and packaged transuranic and NTS generated transuranic mixed waste for storage.
Area 6 includes a waste accumulation building for polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) wastes and a landfill. Area 6 is also the identified site for the Liquid Waste Treatment System. (See Appendix A for a detailed description.)
The Area 11 Explosive Ordnance Disposal Unit is not a disposal unit. It is a thermal treatment unit where explosive wastes are detonated ortreated. (See Appendix A for a detailed description.)

Radioactive waste disposal operations began at the NTS in 1961. Radioactive (low-level, transuranic, mixed, and classified low-level) wastes were disposed of in selected pits, trenches, landfills, and greater confinement (deeper) disposal boreholes on the NTS. Near-surface burial (3 to 18 meters [m] deep [10 to 60 feet (ft)]) of low-level waste and low-level mixed waste in subsidence craters, pits, and trenches has been the historical practice at the NTS (Areas 3 and 5 Radioactive Waste Management Sites). In 1981, the DOE adopted the concept of greater confinement burial (21 to 37 m deep [70 to 120 ft]) for wastes that are not appropriate for near-surface disposal because of their radioactive exposure levels. Specifically, these waste types include a waste similar to greater-than-Class C low-level waste; certain high-specific activity low-level waste (for example, fuel rod claddings and sealed sources); transuranic waste; and some classified wastes. The term "similar to greater-than-Class Clow-level waste" indicates that the waste disposed of at the Area 5 Radioactive Waste Management Site was DOE-generated, not commercially generated waste subject to Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) regulations.

The Low-Level Radioactive Waste Policy Amendments Act of 1985 (Public Law 99-240) made the federal government responsible for the disposal of greater-than-Class C waste generated by licensees of the NRC. Such disposal must be performed in a facility licensed by the NRC. Implementation of this provision may not occur for 20 years or more, and although the DOE is currently studying possible approaches for disposal of this waste, the DOE has not yet formulated a proposal for action. Therefore, disposal of greater-than-Class C waste is not addressed in this EIS.

Questions were raised in comments on the Draft EIS regarding DOE’s handling of "special case wastes." "Special case waste" is not a formal technical waste category in the same sense as "transuranic waste" or "low-level waste"; rather, "special case waste" is a temporary, informal designation used by the generator to identify wastes that exhibit characteristics which indicate that greater analysis may be necessary to properly categorize it, or which may require special handling, storage, or disposal methods. For this reason, the term "special case waste" is not included in the sidebar definitions of the various waste types. The DOE intends to clarify its use of the term "special case waste" in the Final Waste Management Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement. This clarification will update the use of the term to reflect the dynamic nature of DOE’s special case waste inventory. It will also reflect the DOE’s intent to manage this waste within existing waste categories as options arise and plans are developed.

Waste Definitions
Radioactive Waste Solid, liquid, or gaseous material that contains radioactive nuclides regulated under the Atomic Energy Act of 1954, as amended, and of negligible economic value considering costs of recovery. Specific Activity The concentration of radioactivity, given as the number of Becquerels (Bq) or curies (Ci) per unit mass. Transuranic Waste Radioactive waste containing alpha-emitting radionuclides having an atomic number greater than 92 and half-lives greater than 20 years, in concentrations greater than 100 nanocuries (nCi) per gram. Low-Level Waste Radioactive waste not classified as high-level waste, transuranic waste, or spent nuclear fuel, or the tailings or wastes produced by the extraction or concentration of uranium or thorium from any ore processed primarily for its source material content. Test specimens of fissionable material irradiated for research and development only, and not for the production of power or plutonium, may be classified as low-level waste, provided the concentration of transuranic elements is less than 100 nCi per gram. High-Level Waste The highly radioactive waste material that results from the reprocessing of spent nuclear fuel, including liquid waste produced directly in reprocessing of and any solid waste derived from the liquid, that contains a combination of transuranic waste and fission products in concentrations requiring permanent isolation. Byproduct Waste Tailings or waste produced by the extraction or concentration of uranium or thorium from any ore processed primarily for its source material content. Greater-Than-Class C Waste Low-level waste that is generated by the commercial sector and that exceeds U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission concentration limits for Class-C low-level waste as specified in 10 CFR Part 61. DOE is responsible for the disposal of greater-than-Class C wastes from commercial sources. Hazardous Waste Wastes that are designated as hazardous by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) or State of Nevada regulations. Hazardous waste, defined under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, is waste from production or operation activities that poses a potential hazard to human health or the environment when improperly treated, stored, or disposed. Hazardous wastes that appear on special EPA lists or possess at least one of the following characteristics: (1) ignitability, (2) corrosivity, (3) reactivity, and (4) toxicity.Waste Definitions Mixed Waste Waste containing both radioactive and hazardous components, as defined by the Atomic Energy Act and the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, respectively. Mixed waste intended for disposal must meet the Land Disposal Restrictions as listed in Title 40 CFR Part 268. Mixed waste is a generic term for specific types of mixed waste such as low-level mixed waste, and transuranic mixed waste. Low-Level Mixed Waste Low-level waste that also includes hazardous components, as identified in 40 CFR Part 261, Subparts C and D. Transuranic Mixed Waste Waste containing both transuranic and hazardous components, as identified in 40 CFR Part 261, Subparts C and D. Radioactive Waste Management Site Designated location where radioactive waste handling, storage, or disposal operations are conducted under management control. Classified Waste Although not a regulatory term, includes weapons components and assemblies designated by the U.S. Government, pursuant to Executive Order, statute, or regulation, that require protection against unauthorized information or material disclosure for reasons of national security. Additional security and safeguards management activities are required in the handling of these materials.Waste Definitions

Since the 1980s, hazardous waste generated on the NTS has been shipped off site to commercialfacilities. Receipt of transuranic waste for disposal at the NTS ceased in 1988; receipt of mixed waste for disposal from off-site generators ceased in 1990. Certain mixed waste generated from activities on the NTS can be disposed of at the disposal facilities on the NTSwhile others must be stored on the state-authorized storage pad, pending identification of treatment technologies for the hazardous constituents (see definition). Historically (since the mid-1960s), the Area 3 Radioactive Waste Management Site was used primarily for the disposal of contaminated waste generated from the NTS Atmospheric Testing Debris Disposal Program, which involved the cleanup of atmospheric testing sites. Today, Area 3 is used for the disposal of bulk and packaged low-level waste from on-site and off-site DOE-approved generators. Current waste disposal cells at the Area 3 Radioactive Waste Management Site comprise four subsidence craters (U-3ax, U-3bl, U-3ah, and U-3at), with areas between craters U-3ax and U-3bl and between craters U-3ah and U-3at excavated to make two oval-shaped landfill units. Conventional landfill methods are used to dispose of waste in each cell; each layer of waste is covered with 1 m (3 ft) of fill before additional waste materials are disposed. The U-3ax/bl disposal cell contains low-level mixed waste; this cell is inactive, temporarily covered, and awaiting closure. The U-3ah/at cell is currently being used for low-level waste disposal; mixed waste is not accepted. Three additional subsidence craters have been reservedfor use as low-level waste cells: U-3bh, U-3bg, and U-3az.

In 1961, the Area 5 Radioactive Waste Management Site was established for the disposal of low-level waste and classified low-level waste from both on-site and off-site DOE generators. The developed waste area within the Area 5 Radioactive Waste Management Site consists of 17 landfill cells (pits and trenches), 13 greater confinement disposal boreholes, and the transuranic waste storage pad. The low-level waste and low-level mixed waste disposal units within the Area 5 Radioactive Waste Management Site include the following:

Pits for the disposal of low-level waste and on-site generated low-level mixed waste
Trenches for the disposal of low-level waste and classified low-level waste.

The 13 greater confinement disposal boreholes contain low-level waste, low-level mixed waste, waste similar to greater-than-Class C low-level waste, high-specific-activity low-level waste, transuranic waste, transuranic mixed waste, and classified waste. The transuranic waste storage pad is a Resource Conservation and Recovery Act compliant unit for the storage of mixed waste (low-level and transuranic). Additional information can be found in Chapter 4 , Affected Environments. Section 4.1.1.5 contains a description of existing Waste Management Program activities, and Section 4.1.2.3 identifies out-of-state waste generators.

DOE is committed to preventing pollution and reducing waste generation at the NTS. This is accomplished through establishing partnerships with private industry, and complying with local, state, and federal regulations. The elements of the DOE/NV Waste Minimization/Pollution Prevention Program addresses reporting requirements, compliance costs, waste reduction costs, employee concerns, environmental liability, training, and the reduction, recycle, and reuse of commodities. Appendix C.6 provides a description of the DOE/NV Waste Minimization/Pollution Prevention Program.

2.4.3 Environmental Restoration Program

As noted previously, the Environmental Restoration Program and its predecessors have been effectively working toward the decontamination of the NTS since the inception of testing. Prior to the early 1980s, the major focus of environmental restoration was the decontamination of testing areas for future use and the identification of contaminated areas that required restricted access.

Starting in the 1980s, environmental restoration at the NTS grew significantly. Characterization, remediation, and closures were primarily driven by the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act. Abandoned underground storage tanks and PCBs were removed. Hazardous waste disposal trenches were closed using the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act process.

The DOE is committed to the goal of remediating contaminated sites in accordance with the requirements of the responsible agencies. Currentoperations will comply with environmental regulations, and the health and safety of employees and the public will be safeguarded. An ongoing assessment to identify and remediate contamination will continue in pursuit of these goals.

The goal of the Environmental Restoration Program (a detailed discussion of which can be found in Appendix A) is to ensure that risks to the environment and to human health and safety, as posed by inactive and surplus facilities and sites, are either eliminated or reduced to protective levels. Protective levels are determined through site conditions, risk assessments, and consultation with federal and state regulatory authorities.

Specific investigations and risk assessments are being conducted for each corrective action unit (grouping of environmental restoration sites) to determine the levels and extent of contamination, to ascertain the potential human health or environmental exposure to that contamination, and to compare that exposure to established standards for protection of human health and the environment.

Factors Related to Prioritization of Environmental Restoration Program Activities:

Risk Assessment
Available Technology
Cost (Funding Appropriated by Congress)
Future Land and Resources Use
Geographic Location
Interdependency of Actions
Optimization of Resources
DOE, Defense Nuclear Agency, State Priorities
Presence of Cultural Resources or Sensitive Species
Regulatory Requirements
Scheduling (Optimizing Labor and Equipment)
Stakeholder Concerns
Time Required to Complete Action
Waste Management Concerns (Adequate Facilities)

Based on the information gathered and in consideration of the factors listed in the sidebar, the DOE/NV will prioritize environmental restoration activities through interaction with the state of Nevada and interested members of the public. A major driver for this process is the Federal Facility Agreement and Consent Order(State of Nevada, 1996), which has been signed.

2.4.4 Nondefense Research and Development Program

The DOE has historically supported a variety of research and development activities at the NTS and at other locations in Nevada in cooperation with universities, industry, and other federal agencies. The DOE continues to support ongoing nondefense research and development projects. The National Environmental Research Park Program supports environmental research activities at the NTS. Research on the safety aspects of handling, shipping, and storing hazardous fluids and liquefied gaseous fuels are conducted at the Spill Test Facility. The Corporation for Solar Technology and Renewable Resources, with development funding provided by the DOE, continues to study the feasibility of locating and constructing a solar energy facility in Nevada; it is proposed that these solar power generating facilities should be collocated at the NTS and at one or more of the three other Nevada locations under evaluation: Eldorado Valley, Dry Lake Valley, or Coyote Spring Valley.

The Environmental Management and Technology Development project continues to conduct research and development focused on overcoming major obstacles to progress in cleaning up the DOE sites. The principal mission of the Tonopah Test Range is to provide research and development test support for DOE-funded weapons projects. However, the Tonopah Test Range represents a unique test environment, both in location and capabilities, and is available for use by other government agencies and their contractors. The Tonopah Test Range management schedules a broad spectrum of tests to make effective use of range capabilities for multiple users.

2.4.5 Work for Others Program

The Work for Others Program is hosted by the DOE and includes the shared use of certain facilities and resources. Historically, the DOE has hosted projects by other federal agencies, especially the Department of Defense (DoD), that require the large, remote, and secured areas offered by the NTS. Typical past uses under this program have included co-use of NTS airspace, training exercises, and research and development projects.

2.5 Evaluation of Environmental Impacts and Risk

In addition to the NTS EIS, several DOE studies are in progress that address the consequences and risks associated with the DOE’s operations at the NTS and other Nevada locations. Although all of these studies relate to the risk or the consequences of DOE activities, each of these studies has a unique scope and purpose. It is important to understand the differences in study scopes, how these different studies relate to each other, and how the information gained from them has been used in this EIS. Several of these other studies are discussed in the following sections. Figure 2-1 illustrates the scope and purpose of each of these studies and describes their relationship to the NTS EIS.

2.5.1 Nevada Test Site Environmental Impact Statement

The NTS EIS identifies the environmental consequences or impacts that could occur as a result of implementing various resource management alternatives at the NTS. These alternatives encompass a range of resource uses, including current level of operation (Alternative 1), minimum resource use (Alternative 2), maximum use of resources (Alternative 3), and alternative uses of NTS resources (Alternative 4). Consequences resulting from the various alternatives are described as physical impacts (e.g., surface disturbance, degradation of air quality, and availability of water resources). These impacts are assessed and reported for each alternative to inform the decisionmakers of the associated environmental impacts and any potential actions that may be required to mitigate those impacts.

The foundation for the impact analysis conducted in this EIS is the technical data developed and used in the studies and reports noted above and discussed later in this section. Site characterization data, facility information, environmental data, and other information from these other studies, as well as the most current technical information about site uses, were used to perform the impact analyses reported in this EIS.

2.5.2 Human Health Risk Assessment

In addition to describing the physical impacts to the environment that have resulted from past NTS operations and could result from a range of future NTS uses, the NTS EIS includes a human health risk assessment (see Appendix H). The risk assessment quantifies the potential chance of occupational injuries and facilities, cancer deaths, and detriment to workers and the public that could result from the overall operation of the NTS as defined in each alternative. Underlying the assessment of each alternative are the historical operations and their consequences that contribute to the current environmental conditions, or baseline, of the NTS. Thus, the risk assessment encompasses risks contributed from past operations and the risk potentially contributed from each of the future-use alternatives. This EIS considered the consequences of events that have a low probability of occurrence but have high consequences should they occur. There are many events or scenarios that have a very low probability of occurring, but the consequences of such an event are so high that even remotely credible scenarios are considered and evaluated. The results of these analyses provide additional information that was used in this EIS.

2.5.3 Transportation Study

Of utmost importance to the DOE’s stakeholders and the sovereign nations regarding the transportation of radioactive material are the human health risks associated with exposure to ionizing radiation. The health risks of transporting low-level waste, mixed waste, and nuclear material to and on the NTS were evaluated in a transportation risk analysis (see Appendix I). The transportation study identifies the risks to the public resulting from traffic deaths and exposure to radiation from the shipments along the various routes. The transportation study uses current and future projections of the sources and movements of materials and wastes to the NTS. The results of the transportation analyses are incorporated in the appropriate impact analysis section of this EIS.

Performance Assessment and Risk Evaluation Terms

Receptors – Plants, animals, and people that may be exposed to contamination. A receptor can be exposed via the air and soil pathways (for example, by inhalation, ingestion, and contact), and the surface and groundwater pathways (by contact and ingestion).

Pathway– The route by which a contaminant reaches a human receptor. Common pathways considered in performance assessments include, but are not limited to, air, groundwater, and surface water.

Limiting Concentrations – The radioactivity that remains in a waste after treatment, that poses a limitation or bounding condition to disposal options. The radionuclide that tends to be most mobile, or has the highest potential to affect human health and the environment, becomes the limiting factor for the disposal facility.

Residuals – The composition and form of a waste after treatment. For example, solidified incineration ash would be a residual.

Carbon-14 – An isotope of carbon that occurs both naturally and from the decay of certain radioactive isotopes. Carbon-14 is a well-known tool used to date archaeological finds. Carbon-14 can be generated from wastes as a gas and can rise upward to the surface if precautions are not taken.

Human Intruder – A hypothetical individual (in a future scenario) who unknowingly contacts the waste(s) in a disposal unit(s) after the loss of institutional control and with no prior knowledge of the waste disposal activities at the site. Intrusion scenarios include, but are not limited to, drilling into the waste or farming on or near the waste disposal facility.

Groundwater Recharge – Water that infiltrates the land surface and is not lost to evaporation or consumed by plants can percolate downward and replenish the groundwater aquifers. This deep percolation is called recharge. Much of the recharge at the NTS is from mountainous areas as much as 48 km (30 mi) away.

Infiltration – Water that falls on the land surface that does not run off but percolates into the ground. Some of this water evaporates, some is used by plants, and some percolates downward to the groundwater.

Unsaturated Zone – The subsurface zone between the land surface and the top of the groundwater. The unsaturated zone at the NTS is thick, ranging from 160 m (525 ft) to almost 914 m (3,000 ft) in some areas.

2.5.4 Environmental Restoration Assessments

A different type of risk assessment is performed as part of studies conducted for the Environmental Restoration Program. First, a risk assessment that defines the nature and extent of the release of contaminants from a source area is performed for each corrective action unit. Next, the pathways whereby the contamination could lead to an exposure to a worker or off-site resident are identified. The doses to these potential receptors are then estimated for each pathway, and the risk associated with that dosage is evaluated. If the dose exceeds a regulatory standard, some action could be required either to remediate the contamination or otherwise protect the receptor. The available technical information used in these types of assessments is used as appropriate in the NTS EIS and forms the basis for the larger restoration program assessments that are discussed in this EIS. Because these assessments are performed on a project or Corrective Action Unit basis, the assessments will be developed by the DOE in cooperation with the state of Nevada to identify the preferred closure actions. The results will also be incorporated into the National Environmental Policy Act document that analyzes the closure proposal.

2.5.5 Performance Evaluation

The Federal Facility Compliance Act of 1992 requires the DOEto work with its regulators andwith members of the public to establish plans for treatment of DOE’s low-level mixed waste. Although the Federal Facility Compliance Act does not specifically address the disposal of treated low-level mixed waste,both the DOE and the Statesrecognize that disposal issues are an integral part of treatment discussions. The performance evaluation concept was developed by the DOE and the States to address this concern. The performance evaluation process started by identifying DOE sites across the defense complex which were managing mixed waste, and then developed a screening process that eliminated all but 15 sites from consideration as a disposal site. The NTS is one of the remaining sites. The Performance Evaluation of the Technical Capabilities of DOE Sites For the Disposal of Mixed Low-Level Waste, prepared by Sandia National Laboratories (SNL, 1996) contains a description of how sites were eliminated, and contains information on the results of the performance evaluation for the NTS.

The process and technical approach for the performance evaluations were presented to State regulators at several joint State and DOE meetings facilitated by the National Governors’ Association. The technical process, methodology, and data used for the performance evaluations have been continuously reviewed by an independent senior review panel made up of nongovernment experts from academia and industry. The principal goal in developing the performance evaluation was to determine the limiting concentrations of radionuclides in residuals resulting from treatment of low-level mixed waste that can be disposed of at various DOE sites.

A performance evaluation is a screening tool. Its objective is to estimate permissible concentrations of radionuclides in low-level mixed waste disposal facilities so that releases of radionuclides to the environment would not result in exposures to humans at levels greater than some predetermined performance measures. Calculations of release for three pathways (water, atmospheric, and hypothetical inadvertent intruder) form the foundation of the performance evaluation. The technical data and information used in performance evaluations is the same information available for the analyses reported in the NTS EIS. The performance evaluation is not intended to be a substitute for the detailed analysis of a performance assessment, noris it intended for siting or permitting.

Based on the results of the performance evaluation analysis (SNL, 1996), low-level mixed waste disposal at the NTS is almost exclusively limited by the intrusion scenario. Only the radionuclide carbon-14 shows more restrictive waste limits from the atmospheric pathway. The extremely dry conditions at the NTS, where infiltration is negligible and distance to the groundwater is great, inhibit the migration of radionuclides by means of the water pathway.

Transport of radionuclides downward along a groundwater pathway does not appear to be a mechanism for movement in the subsurface at the NTS Radioactive Waste Management Sites. This conceptual model is based on hydrologic studies performed at the NTS which concluded that groundwater recharge at the Area 5 Radioactive Waste Management Site is negligible. In addition, the performance assessment for disposal of low-level waste at Area 5 demonstrates and concludes a "no groundwater pathway" conceptual model for the site hydrologic conditions during the 10,000-year performance period considered in the performance evaluation.

The performance evaluation is a means for the DOE and the States to begin evaluating options for disposal of low-level mixed waste treatment residuals that have been treated pursuant to the requirements of the Federal Facility Compliance Act of 1992. The ultimate identification of sites that might host low-level mixed waste disposal activities will follow state and federal regulations for siting and permitting, and will include public involvement in the decisionmaking. Site-specific performance assessments for the two existing Radioactive Waste Management Sites at the NTS, as described in the following sections, will also be completed.

2.5.6 Performance Assessment and Composite Analysis

The DOE orders for low-level waste and EPA regulations for transuranic waste disposal require that each radioactive waste disposal site prepare and maintain a site-specific radiological performance assessment. A performance assessment is a systematic analysis of potential risks, posed bywaste management systems, to the public and to theenvironment and a comparison of those risks to established performance objectives. A performance assessment is an iterative process that proceeds sequentially from site characterization to conceptual model development, to outcome modeling, and back to site characterization, as necessary. The results of performance assessment analyses are used to guide site characterization activities and to refine subsequent analyses. The process ends when further site characterization would not yield information that could change the decision regarding safety of the site.

The site characterization data used in the performance assessments conducted for the NTS facilities have been used in the impact analyses performed for this EIS. The technical data and information used in the preparation of these performance assessments have also been used in the preparation of the NTS EIS. The technical conclusions of both documents are the same, and the technical data and information used remain relevant to both documents.

The DOE is responsible for disposing of a variety of radioactive wastes, including low-level, transuranic, and high-level waste. Low-level waste disposal is governed by DOE Order 5820.2A, which establishes policies and guidelines for the disposal of radioactive waste in general. The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission regulations in 10 CFR Part 61 include similar requirements for performance assessment of shallow-land burial of commercial radioactive waste. Most low-level waste is disposed of using near-surface burial techniques. Disposal operations at the NTS are described in greater detail in Chapter 4 , Section 4.1.1.5. Disposal of transuranic waste must meet the standards established by the EPA in 40 CFR Part 191. While transuranic waste is planned for disposal generally at the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant near Carlsbad, New Mexico, a few tens of cubic meters of transuranic waste were disposed of in the past at the NTS, and the DOE is in the process of assuring that this disposal is consistent with 40 CFR Part 191. Congress has directed the DOE to study the suitability of Yucca Mountain as a potential permanent repository for spent nuclear fuel and high-level radioactive waste from commercial and DOE-owned sources.

The DOE/NV has conducted, and continues to conduct, performance assessments of low-level waste disposal units at the NTS. The first performance assessment conducted on NTS disposal units was a draft for the Area 5 Radioactive Waste Management Sites prepared by Idaho National Engineering Laboratory (dated August 1, 1988). This performance assessment was prepared prior to the issuance of DOE Order 5820.2A, which contains the requirement for preparing a performance assessment. The performance assessment has been, and continues to be, revised; the next publication is scheduled for the fall of 1996. The first draft performance assessment for the Area 3 Radioactive Waste Management Sites was prepared by Oak Ridge National Laboratory/Grand Junction and was completed in September 1991. Several revisions of the Area 3 performance assessment have occurred, and a major revision is scheduled for completion in 1998.

The performance assessments for the Areas 3 and 5 RWMSs address the post-1988 low-level radioactive waste disposal source term (Shott et al., 1995) for each respective facility, as required under DOE Order 5820.2A. The Order specifies that performance assessments are required only for waste disposed after the effective date of the Order, September 26, 1988. In response to the Defense Nuclear Facilities Safety Board Recommendation 94-2, that the scope of performance assessments be expanded to account for past, present, and future inventories of low-level radioactive waste at the site, the DOE is developing a comprehensive environmental management systems approach to ensure long-term protection from all sources of radioactive materials left in the ground after remediation and disposal programs are completed. The comprehensive approach will include requirements that integrate DOE’s land-use planning, facility decommissioning, environmental restoration, and waste disposal efforts.

Specifically, the long-term radioactive impact of the disposal operations will be analyzed by combining performance assessments under DOE Order 5820.2A for the post-1988 waste source term, with a composite analysis of the pre-1988 waste source terms, as well as other sources of radioactive contamination in the ground that are potentially interactive with the low-level waste facility (DOE,1996). The composite analysis guidance and review criteria are to include 100 millirem (mrem) and 30 mrem in a year as criteria for evaluating results at site-determined compliance points and boundaries. The composite analysis serves as a long-term management planning tool.

Two types of performance assessments are conducted at the NTS: (1) low-level waste performance assessments pursuant to DOE Order 5820.2A for the Areas 3 and 5 Radioactive Waste Management Sites, and (2) transuranic waste performance assessments in the Area 5 Radioactive Waste Management Site pursuant to the EPA’s regulations at 40 CFR Part 191. The following is a brief description of the low-level waste performance assessments and composite analysis in peer review or under development, their purpose, and the tentative schedule for completion. The transuranic waste performance assessments are discussed in Appendix A, Section A.2.

2.5.6.1 Low-Level Waste Performance Assessments

Two low-level waste performance assessments are in review or preparation stages: (1) the Area 5 Radioactive Waste Management Site Performance Assessment and (2) the Area 3 Radioactive Waste Management SitePerformance Assessment. Each performance assessment must evaluate facility operation based on four performance objectives (DOE Order 5820.2A):

Protect public health and safety in accordance with standards specified in applicable environmental health orders and DOE orders, specifically DOE Order 5400.5, Radiation Protection of the Public and the Environment.
Assure that external exposure to the waste and concentrations of radioactive material that might be released into surface water, groundwater, soil, plants, and animals result in an effective dose equivalent that does not exceed 25 mrem per year (mrem/yr) to any member of the public. Releases to the atmosphere must meet the requirements of 40 CFR Part 61, the National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants. Releases of radioactivity in effluent to the general environment must be maintained using the "as-low-as-reasonably-achievable" process. (NV/YMP Radiological Control Manual, DOE/NV, 1994.)
Assure that the committed effective dose equivalents received by individuals who inadvertently intrude into the waste after loss of institutional control (100 years) will not exceed 100 mrem/yr for continuous exposure or 500 mrem for a single acute exposure (a 10,000-year compliance period).
Protect groundwater resources consistent with federal, state, and local regulations and requirements.

Area 5 Radioactive Waste Management Site Performance AssessmentThe Area 5 Radioactive Waste Management Site Performance Assessment (Shott et al., 1995) addresses the post-1988 waste source term for the facility and was submitted to the DOE peer review panel in August 1995 for technical review and recommendation. Panel review is now concluding and a final publication is scheduled for submittal to DOE Headquarters by January 1997 (DOE, 1996). Depending on the extent of the panel’s review comments and recommendations, the Area 5 report should be published by January 1997 or earlier. The next update of the Area 5 Radioactive Waste Management Site Performance Assessment will include the pre-1988 waste source-term and composite analysis, as stated in the Draft Implementation Plan, Defense Nuclear Facilities Safety Board Recommendation 94-2 (DOE, 1995).

The total estimated dose to the general public from all pathways was predicted to be approximately 0.6 mrem/yr. This estimate was obtained through analysis of several scenarios and represents an increase in annual dose ofone-sixth of one percent. This compares favorably to the 25 mrem/yr performance objective dose limit for members of the general public set in DOE Order 5820.2A. Appendix A provides additional details on this and other on-going NTS performance assessments.

Area 3 Radioactive Waste Management Site Performance Assessment The Area 3 Radioactive Waste Management Site Performance Assessment will address the post-1988 waste disposal source term and is scheduled for submittal to DOE/HQ in March 1998 (DOE, 1996). Site characterization of the facility is ongoing to acquire additional subsurface information to support performance assessment analyses in Fiscal Year 1997.

Site characterization of Area 3 in 1996 focuses on completion of exploratory boreholes beneath subsidence craters U-3bh (a reserve low-level waste cell at the Area 3 Radioactive Waste Management Site),U-3ah/at, and U-3ax/bl. The primary objective of the exploratory boreholein Area 3 is to characterize the physical and hydrologic properties of the chimney and to assess the potential for downward groundwater movement and radionuclide transport. The underground shot cavity beneath the subsidence craters at approximately 189 m (620 ft) is much deeper than active hydrologic surface processes (infiltration, redistribution, and evapotranspiration) operating beneath the waste unit, from the ground surface to a depth of approximately 30 m (100 ft). Current scientific hypotheses suggest that the rubble chimney beneath the low-level waste unit does not enhance or promote vertical groundwater flow between the waste unit (subsidence crater) and the deep shot cavity (see Chapter 4 , Section 4.1.5.2) . This conceptual model was confirmed by recent hydrologic data (Van Cleave, 1996). Given the proximity of Area 5 to Area 3 (23 km [14 mi]) and very similar hydrogeologic conditions, the defensible conceptual hydrogeologic model for Area 5 will be tested and validated for the Area 3 Radioactive Waste Management Site.

2.5.6.2 Composite Analyses

The long-term impact of the disposal operations at the Areas 3 and 5 Radioactive Waste Management Sites will be analyzed by combining the site-specific performance assessments for the post-1988 waste source term with complementary composite analyses taking into account the pre-1988 waste source terms, and other sources of proximal radioactive contamination in the ground (DOE, 1996). The Area 3 Radioactive Waste Management SiteComposite Analysis is scheduled to be submitted to DOE Headquarters together with the Performance Assessment by March 1998. The corresponding Area 5 Radioactive Waste Management Site Composite Analysis is due to DOE Headquarters by September 1999.

2.6 Summary

The purpose of the actions addressed in this sitewide EIS is to provide a management framework for the continued operation of the NTS. The actions are influenced by policy considerations, history, and the ongoing activities of the various programs as discussed in this chapter.

The NTS is a critical facility in the DOE’s efforts to meet the nation’s need to safely maintain the nuclear weapons stockpile, to retain the capability to conduct underground tests, and to focus on new and challenging issues of national security, energy, and the environment.

The DOE has historically performed rigorous evaluations of any actions that pose a threat to worker safety, public health, or the environment. The results of these studies have been used in theimpact analyses conducted for this EIS. These evaluations will continue to be conducted as appropriate, and their results will be disclosed and incorporated in future National Environmental Policy Act documents. These evaluations include the detailed safety analysis done by the Defense Program, the comprehensive performance assessments developed in conjunction with the operation of waste management facilities, and the safety planning and risk assessments performed by the Environmental Restoration Program during the characterization and remediation of sites on the NTS. These activities were summarized in Section 2.4 .

This sitewide EIS is not the "final word" and is not designed to cover all potential future activities at the NTS. Rather, this EIS includes only those actions and alternatives that are reasonably foreseeable at this time. Any new actions or projects will receive National Environmental Policy Act reviews prior to their implementation and will be supported through an additional tiered National Environmental Policy Act document. These reviews will include updated information on the various ongoing studies and assessments, as appropriate.

2.7 References

REGULATION, ORDER, LAW

10 CFR Part 61	U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, "Energy, Licensing Requirements for Land Disposal of Radioactive Waste," Code of Federal Regulations, Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Administration, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 1993.
10 CFR Part 1021	U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), "Energy: Compliance with the National Environmental Policy Act," Code of Federal Regulations, National Archives and Records Administration, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 1994.
40 CFR Part 61	U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), "Protection of Environment: Nation Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants," Code of Federal Regulations, Office of Federal Registrar, National Archives and Records Administration, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 1993.
40 CFR Part 191	U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), "Protection of Environment: Environmental Standards for the Management and Disposal of Spent Nuclear Fuel High-Level and Transuranic Radioactive Wastes," Code of Federal Regulations, Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Administration, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 1992.
40 CFR Part 261	EPA, "Protection of Environment: Identification and Listing of Hazardous Waste," Code of Federal Regulations, Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Administration, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 1993.
40 CFR Part 268	EPA, "Protection of Environment: Land Disposal Restrictions," Code of Federal Regulations, Office of the Federal Register, National Archives and Records Administration, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 1993.
60 FR 31291	U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), "Stockpile Stewardship and Management Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement," Federal Register, Washington, DC, 1995.
DOE Order 5400.5	DOE, "Radiation Protection of the Public and the Environment," Washington, DC, 1990.
DOE Order 5820.2A	DOE, "Radioactive Waste Management," Washington, DC, 1988.
GENERAL
DOE, 1995	DOE, Implementation Plan, Defense Nuclear Facilities Safety Board Recommendation 94-2, Conformance with Safety Standards at Department of Energy Low-Level Nuclear Waste and Disposal Sites, Washington, DC, 1995.
DOE, 1996	DOE, Implementation Plan Defense Nuclear Facilities Safety Board Recommendation 94-2, Conformance with Safety Standards at Department of Energy Low-level Nuclear Waste and Disposal Sites, (Rev. 1), 1996
DOE/NV, 1994	DOE/NV, NV/YMP Radiological Control Manual, Revision-1, (Controlled Copy Edition), DOE/NV 10630-59, 1994.
SNL, 1996	Sandia National Laboratories (SNL), Performance Evaluation of the Technical Capabilities of DOE Sites for Disposal of Mixed Low-Level Waste,SAND 96-0721/1, Albuquerque, NM, 1996.
Shott et al., 1995	Shott, G.J., C.J. Muller, L.E. Barker, D.E. Cawlfield, F.T. Lindstrom, D.G. Linkenheil, M.J. Sully, D.J. Thorne, and L. McDowell-Boyer, Performance Assessment for the Area 5 Radioactive Waste Management Site at the Nevada Test Site, Nye County, NV, Reynolds Electrical & Engineering Co., Inc., Las Vegas, NV, 1995.
State of Nevada, 1996	State of Nevada, Federal Facility Agreement and Consent Order, Department of Conservation and Natural Resources, Division of Environmental Protection, Carson City, NV, 1996.
Thorn and Westervelt, 1987	Thorn, R.N. and D.R. Westervelt, Hydronuclear Experiments, LA-10902-MS, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM, 1987.
Van Cleave, 1996	Van Cleave, K.K., letter report to Stephen A. Mellington, Acting Director for the Nevada Operations Waste Management Division, regarding the potential for groundwater recharge below UE3ax/bl, Las Vegas, NV, 1996.

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