Soviet Space Cooperation
Soviet Attitude Toward International Cooperation in Space *
* Prepared by Joseph G. Whelan, Senior Specialist in International Affairs, Senior Specialists Division, CRS.
SPACE COOPERATION: AN IMPERATIVE IN THE PRESENT
ERA
COMMITMENTS IN ACCORD
AN EXPANDING UNIVERSE FOR SPACE ACTIVITIES
SOVIET COOPERATION IN METEOROLOGY AND OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL
MATTERS
NECESSITY OF COOPERATION IN GLOBAL METEOROLOGY
International cooperation is vital to the successful global application of space technology to meteorology. Without international cooperation there can be no global meteorological system. That the American approach to space cooperation in meteorology and that of other nations including the Soviet Union is based on this truism is evident in the detailed review of space and global meteorology in the Congressional Research Service study, World-Wide Space Activities. (48) It is also evident in the comments on the subject appearing in NASA's authorization hearings, 1975-81. (49) The exchange between Dr. Fletcher and Senator Harrison H. Schmitt (R-N. Mex.) is a good example of not only the benefits of cooperation in space meteorology but also its effects on the international environment.
Dr. Fletcher, I believe in terms of pure, broad based international cooperation, independent of, as much as possible, political ideology, the world weather watch [an international program under the World Meteorological Organization for the application of space technology to weather forecasting] is probably the premiere example of where the national boundaries have started to crumble.
Others, such as COMSAT [Communications Satellite Corporation], tend to be still running up against political boundaries, but the world weather watch, I believe, has just about broken through most of those. Is that right? To which Dr. Fletcher responded: I think that is a pretty fair assessment. Senator Schmitt. The Government has both low altitude weather satellites in polar orbit and high altitude ones in stationary orbit. We have given permission world-wide for people to use them and interpret the data and use it for their own purposes.
In exchange for that, the weather data come in to NOAA [National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration] at the weather service here in Suitland, Md., from all over the world—from balloons, rockets, aircraft, and satellites. That international program is probably the farthest along in terms of producing good results. (50)
To what extent Soviet-American cooperation in space meteorology may have produced "good results" quantitatively and qualitatively is not apparent in the material reviewed. But there can be no doubt that important agreements on cooperation in meteorology were reached and programs established. As Dr. Fletcher specifically pointed out in a general reference to Soviet-American space cooperation, "There is also a meteorological working group. We have a cooperative program with the Soviet Union." (51)
CROSS-CALIBRATION TESTS WITH SOUNDING ROCKETS
Tests at Wallops Island with the Akademik Korolev
One aspect of Soviet-American cooperation, especially in space meteorology, were the cross-calibration tests on meteorological rocket systems carried on at Wallops Island, Va. In 1975, the Joint United States/U.S.S.R. Working Group on Space Meteorology agreed to hold these tests to obtain a better understanding of discrepancies in United States and Soviet meteorological rocket data of the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. These measurements were being exchanged under an earlier agreement to investigate the processes which characterize the stratosphere and mesosphere. The purpose of the intercomparison tests was to improve the comparability of the thermodynamic and wind measurements taken by the U.S. Super Loki Datasonde and the U.S.S.R. M-100B meteorological rocketsonde system. (52)
The intercomparison tests were held in August 1977 at Wallops Island. The Soviet hydrometeorological service scientific research ship Akademik Korolev participated on the Soviet side. On February 28, 1978, Mr. Norman Pozinsky, NASA's Deputy Associate Administrator for Space Tracking and Data Systems, gave the following report to the Congress:
I am sure you will recall the stories in the local press last summer concerning the visit to the Eastern shore of the crew of a Soviet ship. That ship was in the area to participate in a data intercomparison test. As you know, both the United States and the Soviet Union coordinate hemispherical meteorology programs for their respective portions of the world. In this way, data gathered in various locales and countries can be aggregated to study weather on a global scale.
However, a joint United States/U.S.S.R. program to exchange data on their respective hemispheric meteorology has discovered consistent variations in data that seem inconsistent with natural phenomena.
In order to eliminate a possible source of error, a program was initiated to conduct a series of simultaneous sounding rocket launches at various locations throughout the world. In this manner, both U.S. and Soviet rocket instrumentation would be sampling the same air masses for temperature, pressure, etc., and differences in the instrument calibrations could be determined during later data analyses.
To carry out this test, a Soviet hydrometeorological research vessel (Figure TC77-3822) was stationed just off the coast of the Eastern shore to fire rockets in conjunction with those fired from the NASA Wallops Flight Center. In all, twenty-two pairs of simultaneous launchings were accomplished. These sounding rocket activities received support from the range instrumentation at Wallops Flight Center which is operated and maintained under our program, and the resulting data calibrations will further research into global weather analysis and forecasting. (53)
Mr. Gerald M. Truszynski, NASA's Associate Administrator for Tracking and Acquisition, reported along similar lines, concluding that the results of the tests "will go far in improving the results coming out of the World Weather program." He emphasized, moreover, that "these tests are illustrative of the cooperative programs that have been going on for some time in NASA and particularly in the sounding rocket program managed by Wallops Flight Center." (54)
Tests at Wallops Island with the Professor Vize
Other intercomparison tests with the Soviets using sounding rockets were conducted at Wallops Island. In June 1978, the Soviet research ship Professor Vize anchored just outside Wallops Island and participated in a Joint American-Soviet Particle Calibration (JASPIC) rocket project.
The ultimate aim of the program, as Dr. Hinners noted, "is to determine whether the nighttime E-region of the ionosphere between 100 and 180 km is due to incoming particles or to solar ultra violet radiation scattered back by the outer layers of the Earth's atmosphere."
As the first step, JASPIC was to intercalibrate Soviet and American instrumentation so that later on independent measurements could be compared in a meaningful manner. Five Soviet MR-12 rockets were fired from the research ship; three U.S. rockets were fired from Wallops Island. A fourth U.S. payload was reserved for a period of higher geomagnetic activity.
Dr. Hinners gave the following report on the results of the tests:
Preliminary comparisons of data show satisfactory agreement between the different techniques used by the Soviet and U.S. scientists, indicating that a good foundation has been laid for future steps in this program. Both sides can now proceed to determine how they wish to continue, with full confidence in each other's data. No commitments have been made for future campaigns, but it is expected that further discussions will be held after the final analysis of JASPIC data is completed. (55)
SOVIET ROLE IN GARP
Soviet cooperation in the first experiment of the Global Atmospheric Research Program (GARP) was less successful than in the cross-calibration tests. GARP is a research arm of the World Weather Program that was established as the same time as the World Weather Watch (WWW). The main objective of GARP is to extend the range, scope, and accuracy of weather forecasts and to understand the physical basis of climate and climatic fluctuations. In addition, GARP formulates realistic models of the atmosphere. This task requires observation and experimental studies of the atmosphere supported by the WWW network in order to establish a data base for creating atmospheric models. (56)
The first GARP Global Experiment (FGGE) was to take place during September 1977 through September 1979. It was to be supported by two polar-orbiting satellites (the U.S. TIROS-N) and five geostationary satellites (two American GOES satellites, in addition to Russian, Japanese, and European satellites). Ships and aircraft were also to complement the coverage from space. (57)
Mr. Leonard Jaffe, NASA's Deputy Associate Administrator for Applications, gave this brief but comprehensive description of GARP:
The first GARP Global Experiment * * * is a very large scale international program involving the use of meteorological satellites, not only those of the United States, but also those of the Soviet Union, the European Community and Japan. It involves the use of the entire international ground-based complex of weather measuring capability and numbers of ships and aircraft in a concentrated effort to observe global weather for a period of 1 year to provide us with a data set that can be used by the research community in improving our weather models and our forecasting capability. This program has been about 10 years in planning and it is a very large scale program which we think will be very productive. (58)
In this vast and long-planned international effort the Soviets had pledged a geosynchronous satellite to be placed over the Indian Ocean. It was scheduled to be launched in late 1978. But the Russians had to back out of the experiment: In 1978, they announced that they could not provide a satellite, presumably because of technical difficulties in the program. The United States filled the gap with one of their own geostationary satellites. (59)
Nonetheless, the Soviets still continued to participate in GARP as planned, except for the geosynchronous satellite. Asked to explain Soviet participation in FGGE now that they failed to contribute a satellite, Dr. Calio responded:
The Russians are still participating in FGGE as planned except for geosynchronous satellite. This includes about 10 ships (of about 40 total, more than any other country) for each of the two special observing periods. They also are contributing data from their polar orbiters, Meteor-class satellites which have sounders. They are operating one of the two major data centers for collection of geophysical data which arrives too late for operational use.
Asked if the Russians would continue to receive full access to the data as if they were a full partner, Calio responded: "All data will eventually go into world data centers—one in Washington (EDS) and one in Moscow. Thus, they will have full access to all FGGE data." (60)
Soviet performance in FGGE was thus mixed. Whatever the reason for their failure to contribute a synchronous satellite, still they did partially fulfill their international obligation by contributing surface ships, polar orbiters, and a major data collection center. (61)
References:
A. SOVIET SPACE PROGRAMS: 1976-80, SUPPORTING VEHICLES AND LAUNCH VEHICLES, POLITICAL GOALS AND PURPOSES, INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION IN SPACE, ADMINISTRATION, RE-SOURCE BURDEN, FUTURE OUTLOOK PREPARED AT THE REQUEST OF HON. BOB PACKWOOD, Chairman, COMMITTEE ON COMMERCE, SCIENCE, AND TRANSPORTATION, UNITED STATES SENATE, Part 1, Dec. 1982.
48. See, Raleigh, Lani Hummel. Specific International Applications Satellite Programs. In House Science and Technology Committee, World-Wide Space Activities, 1977, pp. 414-436.
49. In a commentary on NASA's role in the international effort to study the world's weather, for example, Dr. Calio described the Global Weather Experiment (GWE) which was part of the Global Atmospheric Research Program (GARP). More than 140 nations participated in GWE which Calio said was "the largest scientific experiment ever initiated." He gave the following example of the value of accurate weather forecasts that reflects the necessity for international cooperation in space meteorology: "One day after it [a ground station the United States installed in Dacca at the request of the Bangladesh government] began to receive data from weather satellites of the U.S., the U.S.S.R. and Japan, it tracked a storm in the Bay of Bengal toward a predictable landfall. The populace was evacuated and not one life was lost. In the past, tens of thousands have died when storms struck the coast without no warning." (House Science and Technology Committee, Hearings, 1980 NASA Authorization, 1979, vol. 1, pt. 4, p. 1991.)
50. Senate Commerce, Science, and Transportation Committee, Hearings, NASA Authorization for Fiscal Year 1978, 1977, p. 2, p. 773.
51. Fletcher continued: "We have an international program with many countries of the world to measure global weather conditions; hopefully as a result of this program, we will be able to forecast more than the typical 30-hour period that we have now, aiming toward forecasts of 5 days or up to 2 weeks."
52. Questions and Response, Senate Commerce, Science, and Transportation Committee, Hearings, NASA Authorization for Fiscal Year 1979, 1978, pt. 3, p. 953.
53. Senate Commerce, Science, and Transportation Committee, Hearings, NASA Authorization for Fiscal Year 1981, 1980, pt. 1, p. 501. For a Soviet commentary on the tests, see, Moscow, Krasnaya Zvezda in Russian, Sept. 4, 1977, p. 3, in FBIS Daily Report: Soviet Union, vol. 3, Sept. 8, 1977, p. B10.
54. Ibid., p. 433. The continuity of such tests was noted a year before by Mr. Bradford Johnston, Associate Administrator for Applications, NASA, on Mar. 1, 1977: "Finally, in the Sounding Rocket Program, we are continuing the monitoring of stratospheric temperature and winds begun more than a decade ago. We coordinate a Western Hemisphere network of stations and exchange data with the Soviets, who use a pole-to-pole Eastern Hemisphere network. In bilateral discussions with the Soviets, we are also considering using these networks for measurements of minor constituents in the atmosphere, to verify satellite techniques which are global in extent, and to provide vertical dimension detail which is not currently possible with satellite technology." (Senate Commerce, Science, and Transportation Committee, Hearings, NASA Authorization for Fiscal Year 1978, 1977, pt. 2, p. 1270.)
55. House Science and Technology Committee, Hearings, 1980 NASA Authorization, 1978, vol. 1, pt. 1, p. 287. NOAA's report contained this added information: "Ground-based measurements at the Wallops Ionosphere Station were used to monitor local ionospheric conditions for selecting specific launch times. The ionosphere station prepared special analyses of observations for daily briefings to participating scientists and relay to the Soviet vessel. Because of unfavorable ionospheric conditions, the final launch was delayed until Sept. 27, 1978. Results from these measurements may answer differences in past interpretation of ionospheric data in the 80- to 120-ldlometer-height range." This additional information suggests not only the degree of intimacy of the cooperation but also the value of the tests. (Senate Commerce, Science, and Transportation Committee, Hearings, NASA Authorization for Fiscal Year 1980, 1979, pt. 3, p. 1390.)
56. House Science and Technology Committee, World-Wide Space Activities, 1977, p. 552.
57. Ibid., p. 553.
58. House Science and Technology Committee, Hearings, 1979 NASA Authorization, 1977, vol. 1, pt. 1, p. 325.
59. Statement of Calio, Senate Commerce, Science, and Transportation Committee, Hearings, NASA Authorization for Fiscal Year 1979, 1978, pt. 2, p. 538. Dr. Perry gave this explanation for the Soviet withdrawal: "The Soviet announcement that they would not meet the GARP schedule may simply be a matter of priorities. The Soviet space program, as you know, is dominately military in character, and in fact their total program is under military leadership. There are possible technical reasons: most of the booster types employed by the U.S.S.R. are not suited for placing satellites in geostationary orbits, and they may have experienced difficulty in meeting instrumentation requirements." (Senate Commerce, Science, and Transportation Committee, Hearings, NASA Authorization for Fiscal Year 1979, 1978, pt. 3, p. 1033.)
60. House Science and Technology Committee, Hearings, 1980 NASA Authorization, 1978, vol. 1, pt. 1, p. 259. When asked about the additional cost incurred by the United States because of the Soviet dropout, Calio answered: "The additional cost to the U.S. resulting from the loss of the Russian satellite is $3.2M to be shared among NOAA, NASA and NSF."
61. NOAA's reports to the Congress suggest continuity in the Soviet-American exchange of data. In April 1975, NOAA reported: "Exchange of polar-orbiting satellite data continues between the United States and the U.S.S.R. under the auspices of a long-standing bilateral agreement." (Senate Aeronautical and Space Sciences Committee, Hearings, NASA Authorization for Fiscal Year 1976 and the Transitional period, 1975, pt. 1, p. 610.) In March 1977, NOAA reported: "The United States and the Soviet Union continued to exchange environmental satellite data in 1976 under terms of a long-standing bilateral agreement. Russia received data from NOAA-4 and -5, and the U.S. received data from Russia's Meteor series. Russia launched Meteor-23, -24, -25 and -26 in 1976." (Senate Commerce, Science, and Transportation Committee, Hearings, NASA Authorization for Fiscal Year 1978, pt. 2, p. 940.)
Other instances of Soviet-American cooperation in the areas related to meteorology are recorded in NASA's authorization hearings. A NOAA report of 1977 indicated that the Soviet Union and the United States "continued to exchange satellite cloud pictures during 1977. During the year, the Soviets launched a new series of satellites called Meteor 2. The visible and infrared radiometers on this satellite appear to have environmental monitoring capability close to our IOTS series. Photographs received from the satellite have a resolution of about 2 kilometers. In addition, the United States received data from Meteors 24 through 28 and sent data from NOAA 4 and 5 to Russia." (Senate Commerce, Science, and Transportation Committee, Hearings, NASA Authorization for Fiscal Year 1979, 1978, pt. 2, p. 600.)
In reporting on the current status of "NOAA's Upper Atmospheric Research Program as it Pertains to the Ozone Threat," NOAA recorded an important adjunct to its activities was "involvement, through chairmanship, in the Working Group on the Influence of Environmental Changes on Climate under the U.S.-U.S.S.R. Bilateral Agreement on Cooperation in the Protection of the Environment. The cooperation resulted in the joint U.S.-U.S.S.R. measurement and intercomparison of stratospheric aerosol properties at Rylsk, U.S.S.R., in summer 1975 and at Laramie, Wyo., in summer 1976. Most recently, it resulted in the U.S. acquisition of a Soviet summary on stratospheric ozone, including the first data which have been publicly available in the United States on Soviet estimates of Soviet production and release of chlorofluoromethanes." (Ibid., p.607.) For further references involving Soviet cooperation in the study of ozone measurements and the attainment of intercalibrations, see, Hudson, Robert D., editor. Chlorofluoromethanes and the Stratosphere. NASA Reference Publication 1010, Scientific and Technical Information Office, August 1977, in House Science and Technology Committee, Hearings, 1979 NASA Authorization, 1977, vol. 1, pt. 1, pp. 1059-1060; see also, statement of Calio, House Science and Technology Committee, Hearings, 1980 NASA Authorization, 1978, vol. 1, pt. 1, pp. 145-146.
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