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Anarchist Paramilitary Groups

The end of the Cold War in 1991 was a seismic event for European left-wing militancy. It triggered the rapid collapse of the large, hierarchical, and state-sponsored Marxist-Leninist terrorist organizations that had defined the 1970s and 80s. Groups like West Germany's Red Army Faction (RAF) and Italy's Red Brigades (Brigate Rosse), which had depended on ideological and, in some cases, material support from the Soviet bloc and East Germany, lost their geopolitical patrons and ideological anchors. By the mid-1990s, these "old-school" groups had largely dissolved, leading to a period of fragmentation. The singular vision of a proletariat revolution was replaced by a spectrum of new, more decentralized, and often single-issue-driven militant ideologies.

While the original Red Brigades were defunct, a new, smaller cell emerged in Italy, attempting to revive the old Marxist-Leninist struggle. This group, known as the New Red Brigades-Communist Combatant Party (BR-PCC), carried out a brief but deadly campaign. Their goal was to strike at the "heart of the state" by targeting individuals involved in labor market reforms. Massimo D'Antona (1999), a government advisor on labor policy, was assassinated in Rome. Marco Biagi (2002), another labor advisor, was killed in Bologna using the same gun. This resurgence was short-lived. Key members, including Nadia Desdemona Lioce, were arrested in a 2003 shootout, effectively ending this throwback to Cold War-era tactics. This cell was an anomaly, as the dominant trend in militancy had already shifted decisively toward anarchism.

It's important to differentiate the broader European trend from Euskadi Ta Askatasuna (ETA) in Spain. ETA was primarily an ethno-nationalist separatist organization fighting for an independent Basque Country. However, it explicitly adopted a Marxist-Leninist ideology to frame its struggle. ETA defined itself as a "revolutionary socialist" movement, merging the "national question" (Basque independence) with the "class struggle" (anti-capitalism). Its campaign of bombing and assassination continued long after the Cold War, killing hundreds until it declared a permanent ceasefire in 2011 and formally disbanded in 2018. ETA stands apart because its primary motivator was nationalism, using Marxism as its revolutionary framework.

In November 2025, the U.S. government officially designated several of these modern groups—including Germany's Antifa Ost, Italy's FAI, and two newly named Greek anarchist cells—as terrorist organizations, signifying their perceived threat and marking a new chapter in the state's confrontation with this post-Cold War generation of left-wing militancy.

The vacuum left by the old Marxist-Leninists was filled by three interconnected and often overlapping movements that define the modern era of left-wing militancy.

The Anti-Globalization Movement and the 'Black Bloc' - From the late 1990s, the anti-globalization (or anti-capitalist) movement became a major force. While largely peaceful, its protests at major economic summits were consistently marked by the "Black Bloc" tactic. This is not a formal group, but a method where individuals, typically anarchists or autonomists, dress in black and wear masks to conceal their identities. Their actions are focused on property destruction (smashing bank windows, burning cars, vandalizing corporate symbols) and direct, organized street battles with police. Major examples included G8 Summit in Genoa (2001), which saw massive and notoriously violent riots where Black Bloc tactics were on full display. G20 Summit in Hamburg (2017) also witnessed widespread rioting, arson, and looting in what German police described as "urban guerrilla warfare."

Insurrectionary Anarchism emerged in Greece and Italy after the 2008 financial crisis. The subsequent brutal austerity measures, particularly in Southern Europe, acted as a powerful accelerant for a new wave of anarchist militancy. These groups are decentralized, operate in small cells, and embrace a philosophy of "insurrectionary anarchism"—using constant, small-scale attacks to provoke a revolutionary crisis.

Greece became a hotspot for this activity. The police killing of 15-year-old Alexandros Grigoropoulos in 2008 triggered widespread riots and galvanized groups like the Conspiracy of Fire Nuclei (SPF). An anarcho-individualist group, SPF was responsible for hundreds of firebombings and arson attacks, eventually escalating to sending parcel bombs to European leaders and embassies. A second group, Revolutionary Struggle (EA), conducted higher-profile attacks, including a 2007 rocket-propelled grenade (RPG) attack on the U.S. Embassy in Athens and a 2009 bombing at the Athens Stock Exchange.

Italy saw the rise of the Informal Anarchist Federation (FAI/FRI). A loose network of anarchist cells, the FAI has claimed responsibility for numerous letter bombs and, most notably, the 2012 "kneecapping" (shooting in the legs) of Roberto Adinolfi, an executive at a nuclear power firm. The FAI maintains strong ideological ties with its Greek counterparts.

Militant Anti-Fascism ('Antifa') groups are distinct from the historical, state-aligned anti-fascism of the Cold War. While anti-fascist movements have long existed, a modern, militant wing has become more prominent, particularly in Germany. They are typically autonomous, anti-authoritarian, and view physical confrontation as necessary to stop the rise of neo-Nazism. This culminated in groups like Germany's "Antifa Ost" (also known as the "Hammerbande"). This group was prosecuted in 2023 for carrying out organized, pre-meditated, and highly violent attacks using weapons like hammers and batons against individuals they identified as neo-Nazis.




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