Araucanian Warfare
The Araucanians' valor inspired the Chileans to mythologize them as the nation's first national heroes, a status that did nothing, however, to elevate the wretched living standard of their descendants. Of the three Araucanian groups, the one that mounted the most resistance to the Spanish was the Mapuche, meaning "people of the land."
The Araucanians, after a war of forty-four years, succeeded in destroying the cities and towns that had been built by their enemies, and freeing their territory from the Spaniards, who were never after able to conquer it The city of Valdivia was twice besieged, ineffectually, by the toqui Caupolican; but it was not so fortunate in resisting the talents and activity of the celebrated Paillamachu, who, in the year 1599, surprised it at night with 4,000 men, and put the garrison to the sword, burnt the city, and carried off an immense booty, consisting of the effects of the inhabitants, and, it is said, a million in gold; he also made many captives, and, imitating the Spaniards, he quartered all that bore arms, and hung those bloody trophies upon trees; the women and girls were distributed amongst the conquerors, while the boys were adopted, and these, with their descendants, became the fiercest enemies of the Spaniards.
The brave Paillamachu destroyed the cities of Concepcion, Chillan, Angol, Lumaco, Puren, Colla, Arauco, Cafiete, Villa Rica, Imperial, and Osorno, and, after having revenged the wrongs of his countrymen, and freed the Araucanian territory of the Spaniards, he died in the year 1603. The Dutch took possession of Valdivia in the year 1640, but were obliged to abandon it after having held it for three months. The Spaniards returned, and, notwithstanding their having erected forts in Valdivia, Osorno, Arauco, and other places on the frontier, the Araucanians never allowed them to remain at ease; nor were the Americans ever conquered, although considered as the inhabitants of the republic of Chile.
Every Araucanian was born a soldier. All are ready to proffer their services for war, so that there is no difficulty in raising an army, which usually consists of five or six thousand men, besides the corps de reserve, which are kept in readiness for particular occasions, or to replace those killed in battle. The commander in chief appoints his vice-toqui, or lieutenant-general, and the other officers of his staff, who in their turn nominate their subaltern officers: by this method harmony and subordination are maintained between the respective commanders. The vice-toqui is almost always selected from among the] [Puelches, in order to satisfy that valiant tribe, who amount to the fourth part of the population of the state. Nor have the Araucanians ever had cause to repent of this selection. One of these mountaineers, Leviantu, lieutenant-general of Curignancu, harassed the Spaniards greatly, and gave their troops constant employment.
The army was by the end of the 18th Century composed of infantry and of home. It originally consisted entirely of the former; but in their first battles with the Spaniards, perceiving the great advantages which their enemies derived from their cavalry, they soon began to discipline themselves in the same manner. Their first care was to procure a good breed of horses, which in a short time became so numerous, that in the year 1568, seventeen years after their first opposing the Spanish arms, they were able to furnish several squadrons ; and in the year 15S5, the cavalry was first regularly organized by the Toqui Cadeguala. The infantry, which they call namuntulinco, is divided into regiments and companies: each regiment consists of one thousand men, and contains ten companies of one hundred. The cavalry is divided in like manner, but the number of horse is not always the same. They have all their particular standards, but each bears a star, which is the national device. The soldiers are not clothed in uniform, according to the European custom, but all wear beneath their usual dress cuirasses of leather, hardened by a peculiar mode of dressing; their shields and helmets are also made of the same material.
The cavalry was armed with swords and lances; the infantry with pikes or clubs pointed with iron. They formerly employed bows and slings, in the nse of which they were very dexterous; but since the arrival of the Spaniards, they have almost entirely relinquished them ; experience having taught them to avoid the destructive effect of their musketry, by immediately closing in, and fighting hand to hand with the enemy. The art of making gunpowder was long unknown to this warlike people. Either they regarded it but little, or, what was more probable, those Spaniards with whom they sometimes traded would not, if they were themselves acquainted with it, communicate to them the composition. It is, however, believed that they made use at first of the greatest exertions to obtain the knowledge of this secret, so important in the present system of warfare. The discovery of powder is well ascertained to have been owing more to accident than to the efforts of human ingenuity, although some pretend that it was known in China long before the period that it was discocovered in Europe.
The inhabitants of the country relate the following anecdote respecting gunpowder, which, however fabulous and absurd it may appear, is generally credited. The Araucanians, on first seeing Negroes with the Spaniards, imagined that they prepared from them the powder which they used. Soon after, having taken one of those unfortunate men, they first covered him with stripes from head to foot, and afterwards burned him to a coal, in order, by reducing it to powder, to obtain the so much wished-for secret; but were soon convinced of the fallacy of their chemical principles. In their various encounters with the Spaniards, they occasionally took from them powder and muskets, which, in the subsequent battles, they employed with as much skill as if they had been for a long time accustomed to them; but as soon as the powder was expended, they were forced to resume their former arms.
The Dutch, when they took the city of Valdivia, attempted to form an alliance with them, and promised to supply them with powder and cannon; but as they distrusted all Europeans, they would not listen to their proposal. Before setting out on his expedition, the general assigns three days for consultation, in order to consider anew the plans of the campaign, and to adopt thcbestexpedienls. Upon this occasion every one has the liberty of offering his opinion, if he deems it conducive to the public welfare. In the mean time the general consults in secret with the officers of his staff upon the plans which he has formed, and the means of remedying sinister events. After this the army commences its march to the sound of drums, being always preceded by several advanced parties, in order to prevent a surprise. The infantry, as well as cavalry, proceed on horseback; but on coming to action, they immediately dismount, and form themselves into their respective companies.
Each soldier is obliged to bring from home not only his arms, but his supply of provisions, according to the custom of the Romans. As all are liable to military service, so no one in particular is obliged to contribute to the support of the army. The provision consists in a small sack of parched meal for each, which, diluted with water, furnishes sufficient food for them until they are enabled to live at free quarters upon the enemy. The Araucanian troops are extremely vigilant; they adopt at night the most prudent measures, by encamping in secure and advantageous positions. On these occasions centinels are placed upon all sides: and in presence of the enemy they re-double their precautions,and strengthen the posts they occupy with strong entrenchments. Every soldier during night is obliged, in order to prove his vigilance, to keep up a fire before his tent: the great number of these fires serves to deceive the enemy, and have at a distance a very singular appearance.
They were, besides, well acquainted with the art of constructing military works, and of protecting themselves with deep ditches, which they guard with branches of thorn, and strew caltrops in the environs to repress the incursions of the enemy's horse. In short, there were few military stratagems that they did not employ at a proper time and place. The celebrated Spanish poet Ercilla, who fought against them under Don Garcia, expresses his admiration at meeting with troops so well disciplined, and possessing such perfection in tactics, which, to use his expressions, the most celebrated nations in the world had not been able to attain without great trouble, and after a long course of years. When an action became necessary, they separate the cavalry into two wings, and place the infantry in the center, divided into several battalions, the files being composed alternately of pikemen and soldiers armed with clubs, in such a manner, that between every two pikes a club was always to be found. The vicetoqui has the command of the right wing, and that of the left is committed to an experienced officer. The toqui is present every where, as occasion may require, and exhorts his men with much eloquence to fight valiantly for their liberties.
But of this there appears little need, as the soldiers manifest such ardour, that their officers have much more difficulty in restraining their impetuosity than in exciting them to action. Fully impressed with the opinion, that to die in battle is the greatest honour that a man can acquire in this life, on the signal for combat being given, they advance desperately, shouting in a terrific manner; and notwithstanding the slaughter made among them by the cannon, endeavour to penetrate the centre of the enemy. Though they know full well that the first ranks will be exposed to almost certain destruction, they eagerly contend with each other for these posts of honor, or to serve as leaders of the files. As soon as the first line is cut down, the second occupies its place, and then the third, until they finally succeed in breaking the front ranks of the enemy. In the midst of their fury they nevertheless preserve the strictest order, and perform all the evolutions directed by their officers. The most terrible of them are the club-bearers, who, like so many Hercules, destroy with their iron-pointed maces all whom they meet in their way.
The spoils of war are divided among those who have had the good fortune to take them. But when the capture has been general, they are distributed among the whole in equal parts, called res, so that no preference is shown to any of the officers, nor even to the toqui. The prisoners, according to the custom of all barbarous nations, are made slaves, until they are exchanged or ransomed. According to the admapu, one of these unfortunate men must be sacrificed to the manes of the soldiers killed in the war. This cruel law, traces of which are to be found in the annals of almost all nations, is nevertheless very rarely put in practice, but one or two instances having occurred in the space of nearly 200 years. The Araucanians are sensible to the dictates of compassion, although the contrary is alleged by certain writers, who having assumed as an incontrovertible principle, that they never give quarter to their enemies, afterwards contradict themselves in mentioning the great number of prisoners who have either been exchanged or ransomed after the war.
The sacrifice, called pruloneon, or the dance of the head, is performed in the following manner: The officers, surrounded by the soldiers, form a circle, in the centre of which, in the midst of four poniards, representing the four uthal-mapus, is placed the official axe of the toqui. The unfortunate prisoner, as a mark of ignominy, is then led in upon a horse deprived of his ears and tail, and placed near the axe, with his face turned towards his country. They afterwards give him a handful of small sticks and a sharp stake, with which they oblige him to dig a hole in the ground; and in this they order him to cast the sticks one by one, repeating the names of the principal warriors of his country, while at the same time the surrounding soldiers load these abhorred names with the bitterest execrations. He is then ordered to cover the hole, as if to bury therein the reputation and valour of their enemies, whom he has named. After this ceremony the toqui, or one of his bravest companions, to whom he relinquishes the honour of the execution, dashes out the brains of the prisoner with a club.
The heart was immediately taken out by two attendants, and presented palpitating to the general, who sucks a little of the blood, and passes it to his officers, who repeat in succession the same ceremony; in the mean time he fumigates with tobacco smoke from his pipe the four cardinal points of the circle. The soldiers strip the flesh from the bones, and make of them flutes; then, cutting off the head, carry it round upon a pike, amidst the acclamations of the multitude, while, stamping in measured pace, they thunder out their dreadful war-song, accompanied by the mournful sound of these horrid instruments. This barbarous festival is terminated by applying to the mangled body the head of a sheep, which is succeeded by a scene of riot and intoxication. If the skull should not be broken by the blows of the club, they make of it a cup, called railonco, which they used in their banquets in the manner of the ancient Scythians and Goths.
The Araucanians, proud of their valor and unbounded liberty, believed themselves the only people in the world deserving the name of men. From hence it is, that, besides the appellation of auca, or free, which they value so highly, they give themselves metaphorically the names of che, or the nation; of reche, pure or undegenerated nation; and of huentu, men, a word of similar signification with the view of the Latins; and as the latter is the root of the word virtus, so from the former is derived huentitgen, which signifies the same thing. From this ridiculous pride proceeds the contempt with which they regard all other nations.
To the Spaniards they gave, on their first knowledge of them, the nickname of chiapi, vile soldiers; from whence proceeded the denomination of chiapeton, by which they are known in South America. They afterwards called them huinca,' this injurious appellation, which from time and custom has lost its odiousness, comes from the verb huincun, which signifies to assassinate. It is true that in their first battles the Spaniards gave them too much reason for applying to them these opprobrious epithets, which served later to denote one of that nation. Esteeming themselves fortunate in their barbarity, they called those Indians who lived in the Spanish settlements culme-huinca, or wretched Spaniards. To the other Europeans, the English, French, and Italians, whom they readily distinguished from each other, they gave the name of maruche, which is equivalent to the term moro, used by the common people of Spain, to denote all strangers indiscriminately. They call each other pegni, that is, brothers, and even apply the same name to those born in their country of foreign parents.
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