Military

a. Most major world cities have European characteristics. They have combination street patterns, along with distinct economic and ethnic sections with differing construction techniques. Often, there are extensive shantytown or slum areas combining very high population density with flimsy, highly inflammable buildings. These type patterns present obstacles to vehicles.

b. Variations in cities are caused mainly by differences in economic development and cultural needs. Developed and developing countries differ more in degree and construction style rather than in structure and function. Major urban trends are: high-rise apartments, reinforced concrete construction, truck-related industrial storage, shopping centers, detached buildings, suburbs at outer edges, and apartment complexes.

c. The spatial expanse of cities throughout the world in the last three decades presents challenges for the execution of UO. The increased use of reinforced concrete framed construction is only one example of the trend to use lighter construction, which affects how forces attack or defend such an area. Also, concrete and steel high-rise structures hinder wall breaching and limit radio communications. Another example is the growing apartment complexes, shopping centers, and truck-related industrial storage that lie on the outskirts of towns and cities. This change in style causes offensive action to be more difficult and may enhance the defense of such an area.

a. Middle East and North Africa. All nations in this region can be reached by sea. This region has long, hot, dry summers and mild winters, making life outside cities difficult. In spite of its vast deserts, greater urban congestion has resulted. Ancient cities have expanded into metropolises and many new cities have been created because of the petroleum industry (mainly in the Persian Gulf). European influence and petroleum revenues have resulted in urban centers with modern sections of multistory buildings surrounded by large areas of single-story, sometimes sturdy, but often flimsy, construction.

b. Latin America. Most urban centers can be reached by sea with many capitals serving as ports. This region has mainly a tropical climate. It has a strong Spanish influence characterized by broad avenues that radiate from a central plaza with a large church and town hall. Upper and middle class sections combine with the urban centers, while the lower class and poor sections are located at the outer edges of the city, often forming shantytowns.

c. Far East. Except for Mongolia, all nations in this region can be reached by sea. Urbanization is dense, especially in coastal cities where modern commercial centers are surrounded by vast industrial developments and residential districts.

d. South Asia. This region has great European influence with wide busy streets that are overcrowded. Urban centers may be composed mainly of poorer native sections with few or no public services and alleys no more than a yard wide.

e. Southeast Asia. This region also has strong European influences with most capitals and major cities serving as seaports. Urban centers contain both the older, high-density native quarters with temples or religious shrines, and modern sections with boulevards, parks, and warehouses.

f. Sub-Sahara Africa. In contrast to other regions, this region cannot be accessed by sea and has impassable terrain. Except for a few kingdoms, towns did not exist before the arrival of the Europeans. As a result, urban areas are relatively modern and without "an old quarter," although many do have shantytowns.

g. Polar/Arctic Regions. Polar/arctic regions are extremely harsh environments where weather and rugged terrain can adversely affect military operations. Buildings tend to be more modern due to scientific study and exploration.

a. Urban Zones. The S2 subdivides the area of operation (AO) and the area of interest (AI) into appropriate types of zones as described below. (See FM 34-130 for more information.)

b. Street Patterns. Knowledge of street patterns and widths gives commanders and leaders a good idea of whether or not mounted mobility corridors in different zones can permit wheeled or tracked vehicles and facilitate command and control. For example, a rectangular, radial, radial ring, or combined pattern facilitates movement and control better than irregular patterns. Common street patterns within the AI and AO are described in Figure 2-11.

a. Military maps, normally the basic tactical terrain analysis tool, do not provide sufficient detail for a terrain analysis in urban areas. Leaders' reconnaissance and aerial imagery become much more important in urban terrain. Subterranean features (sewer systems, subway systems, and underground water systems), elevated railways, mass transit routes, fuel and gas supply and storage facilities, electric power stations and emergency systems, and mass communications facilities (radio, telephone) are often not depicted on military maps.

b. The nature of combat can radically alter the terrain in an urban area in a short period. Incidental or intentional demolition of structures can change the topography of an area and destroy reference points, create obstacles to mobility, and provide additional defensive positions for defenders.

c. Certain public buildings must be identified during the terrain analysis. Hospitals, clinics, and surgical facilities are critical because the laws of war prohibit their attack when they are being used solely for medical support. The locations of civil defense, air raid shelters, and food supplies are critical in dealing with civilian affairs. The same is true during insurgency, guerrilla, or terrorist actions. Again, these facilities may become key terrain for certain missions or may have to be safeguarded and protected under ROE.

d. Stadiums, parks, sports fields, and school playgrounds are of high interest during operations in urban areas. They provide civilian holding areas, interrogation centers, insurgent segregation areas, and prisoner of war holding facilities. These open areas also provide landing zones (LZ) and pick up (PZ) zones. They provide logistical support areas and offer air resupply possibilities because they are often centrally located within a city or city district.

e. Construction sites and commercial operations, such as lumberyards, brickyards, steelyards, and railroad maintenance yards, serve as primary sources of obstacle and barrier construction materials when rubble is not present or is insufficient. They can also provide engineers with materials to strengthen existing rubble obstacles or with materials for antitank hedgehogs or crib-type roadblocks.

f. Roads, rivers, streams, and bridges provide high-speed avenues of approach. They also provide supporting engineer units locations to analyze demolition targets and to estimate requirements for explosives. When conducting navigation, do not rely on street signs as accurate navigation aids, and do not expect all bridges to be passable.

g. Public baths, swimming facilities, car washes, and cisterns are useful in providing bathing facilities. They also provide an alternate water source when public utilities break down or for use as decontamination facilities.

h. A close liaison and working relationship should be developed with local government officials and military forces. In addition to information on items of special interest, they may provide information on the population, size, and density of the urban area; fire-fighting capabilities; the location of toxic industrial materials (TIM); police and security capabilities; civil evacuation plans; and key public buildings. They may also provide English translators, if needed.

a. Visibility. Light data have special significance during urban operations. Night and periods of reduced visibility, to include fog, favor surprise, infiltration, detailed reconnaissance, attacks across open areas, seizure of defended strong points, and reduction of defended obstacles. However, the difficulties of night navigation in restrictive terrain, without reference points and in close proximity to the threat, forces reliance on simple maneuver plans with easily recognizable objectives. Many urban areas are located along canals or rivers, which often create a potential for fog in low-lying areas. Industrial and transportation areas are the most affected by fog due to their proximity to waterways. In heavy industrial areas, smog can also limit observation under all light conditions.

b. Winds. Wind chill is not as pronounced in urban areas. However, the configuration of streets, especially in close-orderly block and high-rise areas, can cause wind canalization. This factor increases the effects of the wind on streets that parallel the wind direction, while cross-streets remain relatively well protected. Because of these factors, swirling winds occur and the wind speed and direction may constantly change. This factor also affects the use of smoke for both friendly and threat forces. Downwind predictions for NBC and TIM are also difficult.

c. Precipitation. Rain or melting snow often flood basements and subterranean areas, such as subways. This statement is especially true when automatic pumping facilities that normally handle rising water levels are deprived of power. Rain also makes storm and other sewer systems hazardous or impassable. Chemical agents and other TIM are washed into underground systems by precipitation. As a result, these systems may contain toxic concentrations much higher than surface areas and become contaminated "hot spots." These effects become more pronounced as chemical agents or TIM are absorbed by brick or unsealed concrete sewer walls.

d. Temperature and Humidity. Air inversion layers are common over cities, especially cities located in low-lying "bowls" or in river valleys. Inversion layers trap dust, chemical agents, and other pollutants, reducing visibility and often creating a greenhouse effect, which causes a rise in ground and air temperature.

a. Modern Mass-Construction Buildings. Modern types of mass-construction buildings are wall and slab structures, such as many modern apartments and hotels, and tilt-up structures commonly used for industry or storage. Mass-construction buildings are built in many ways:

• The walls can be built in place using brick, block, or poured-in-place concrete.

• The walls can be prefabricated and "tilt-up" or reinforced-concrete panels.

• The walls can be prefabricated and assembled like boxes.

b. Brick Buildings. Brick buildings are the most common mass-construction buildings. In Europe, brick buildings are commonly covered with a stucco veneer so that bricks do not show (Figure 2-17). One of the most common uses of brick buildings is the small store. These buildings are found in all urban areas but are most common in the dense random construction and close-orderly block areas (Figure 2-18).

c. Warehouse. Another common mass-construction building in the industrial-transportation zone is the warehouse. It is built of poured-in-place concrete reinforced with steel bars or of prefabricated "tilt-up" walls. The walls of warehouses provide good cover, although the roof is vulnerable. The warehouses' large open bays permit ATGM firing and, because they are normally found in outlying areas, often afford adequate fields of fire. These buildings are built on slabs, which can normally support the weight of vehicles and can provide excellent cover and concealment for tanks (Figure 2-19).

d. Box-Wall Type. Another mass-construction building is the box-wall principle type. It is made from prefabricated concrete panels, which are made of 6- to 8-inch-thick reinforced concrete. The outside wall is often glass. The box-wall principle building provides good cover, except at the glass wall. The rooms are normally too small for ATGMs to be fired. A good circulation pattern exists from room to room and from floor to floor. These buildings are commonly used as hotels or apartments and are located in high-rise areas (Figure 2-20).

e. Public Gathering Places. Public gathering places (churches, theaters) are mass-construction buildings with large, open interiors. The walls provide good cover, but the roof does not. The interior walls are not load bearing and are normally easy to breach or remove. These buildings have adequate interior space for firing ATGMs. They are often located next to parks or other open areas and, therefore, have fields of fire long enough for ATGMs. Public gathering places are most common in the dispersed residential and high-rise areas (Figure 2-21).

a. Heavy-Clad Framed Buildings. Heavy-clad buildings were common when framed buildings were first introduced. Their walls are made of brick and block that are sometimes almost as thick as frameless brick walls, although not as protective. Heavy-clad framed buildings are found in the city core or core periphery. They can be recognized by a classic style or architecture in which each building is designed with three sections: the pediment, shaft, and capital. Unlike the brick building, the walls are the same thickness on all floors, and the windows are set at the same depth throughout. Often the frame members (the columns) can be seen, especially at the ground floor. The cover provided from the cladding, consisting of layers of terra cotta blocks, brick, and stone veneer, is not as good as cover from the walls of brick buildings. It protects against small-arms fire and light shrapnel but does not provide much cover against heavy weapons (Figure 2-23).

b. Light-Clad Buildings. Light-clad buildings are more modern and may be constructed mostly of glass (Figure 2-28). Most framed buildings built since World War II are light-clad buildings. They are found in both core and outlying high-rise regions. Their walls consist of a thin layer of brick, lightweight concrete, or glass. Such materials provide minimal protection against any weapon. However, the floors of the buildings are much heavier and provide moderate overhead cover. The rooms in light-clad framed buildings are much bigger than those in heavy-clad. This feature, along with the fact that the buildings usually stand detached from other buildings, favors the employment of ATGMs. The interior partitions are thin, light, and easy to breach (Figure 2-29).

c. Garage. The garage (Figure 2-30) is one of the few buildings in an urban area in which all floors support vehicles. It provides a means to elevate vehicle-mounted TOWs, and the open interiors permit firing of ATGMs. Garages are normally high enough to provide a 360-degree field of fire for antiaircraft weapons. For example, a soldier equipped with a Stinger could hide under the top floor of the garage, come out to engage an aircraft, and then take cover back inside.

a. Brick Buildings. The floor plans in brick buildings are usually different on ground floor levels than on upper levels (Figure 2-31).

b. Brick Houses. Brick houses have similar floor plans on each floor (Figure 2-32); therefore, ground floors are cleared the same way as upper floors. The same recommendations for breaching and clearing brick buildings apply except that breaching deeply slanted roofs may be difficult.

c. Box-Wall Buildings. Box-wall buildings often have reinforced concrete walls (Figure 2-33), which are difficult to breach due to the reinforcing bars. Therefore, the best way to enter is to breach through a door or one of the side windows. The floor plans of these buildings are predictable. Clearing rooms is usually done from one main hallway. Interior walls are also constructed of reinforced concrete and are difficult to breach. The stairways at the ends of the building must be secured during clearing. If a wall breach is chosen, plans must be made to cut the reinforcing bars.

d. Heavy Clad Framed Buildings. Heavy-clad framed buildings are relatively easy to breach with explosive or ballistic breaching techniques. Their floor plans are oriented around a stairway or elevator, which must be secured during clearing (Figure 2-34). The interior walls of these buildings can be breached, although they may require use of explosives to be effective.

e. Light-Clad Framed Buildings. On light-clad framed buildings (Figure 2-35), the clearing tasks are usually the same: secure the central stairway and clear in a circular pattern. Walls are easier to breach since they are usually thinner.

a. Mass Construction Buildings. Mass-construction buildings are the most common structures in urban areas, forming about two-thirds of all building types. Brick structures account for nearly 60 percent of all buildings, especially in Europe.

b. Framed Multistory Buildings. Steel and concrete framed multistory buildings have an importance far beyond their one-third contribution to total ground floor area. They occupy core areas—a city's most valuable land—where, as centers of economic and political power, they have a high potential military significance.

c. Open Space. Open space accounts for about 15 percent of an average city's area. Many open spaces are grass-covered and are used for parks, athletic fields, and golf courses; some are broad, paved areas. The largest open spaces are associated with suburban housing developments where large tracts of land are recreation areas.

d. Streets. Streets serving areas consisting of mostly one type of building normally have a common pattern. In downtown areas, for example, high land values result in narrow streets.

a. Conventional Threats and Planning Factors. Most nations with conventional forces emphasize managing combined arms operations in urban areas. Among the conventional force structures, the poorer the nation, the less likely it is to field, maneuver, and sustain forces beyond logistic centers. Also, the extreme environment in some regions restricts operations beyond urban centers. Urban structural characteristics are shaped by social, cultural, and economic factors. These elements are the prime reasons that UO doctrine and tactics differ between nations. Coupled with the restrictive nature of urban combat, the differences in tactics may be superficial. More than any other factor, the advent of high technology, precision weapons has enabled nations to modify and update their UO doctrine and tactics. Research has revealed many factors to consider in the planning and execution of UO. Some key factors are:

b. Stability and Support Planning Factors. The brigade and battalion S2s conduct the IPB process; commanders and leaders must use the information provided to determine the best method to accomplish the mission. Company teams often conduct certain stability and support operations, such as support to insurgency, and counterterrorist operations with special operations forces (SOF). For example, company teams may conduct supporting missions such as isolating the objective or providing security for the SOF. The following considerations assist in evaluating the threat during stability and support operations.

a. Conventional Forces. Many Third World countries have adopted techniques of urban combat from either the United States or the Commonwealth of Independent States (some of the former USSR republics). Therefore, the future threat may consider the motorized or mechanized rifle battalion the most effective unit for urban combat because of its inherent mobility, armor protection, and ability to quickly adapt buildings and other structures for defense.

b. Other Threats. Different threats in many underdeveloped countries are neither conventional threats nor can they be described as an insurgency.

c. Unconventional Forces. These threats consist of urban insurgents and terrorist groups. (See FM 7-98 for detailed descriptions.)

d. Threat Doctrine. No single threat doctrine can be identified as the one the US military faces during UO. This does not mean that potential opponents do not have clearly identifiable doctrinal principles or that they have not developed specific TTP for urban combat based on those principles. Commanders and leaders at all levels must strive to identify the TTP an opponent uses and to anticipate his actions.

e. Detailed Description of Threat Tactics. The increasing availability of sophisticated technology has created unorthodox tactics that can be exploited by potential opponents. These tactics seek to counter the technological and numerical advantages of US joint systems and forces, and to exploit constraints placed on US forces due to cultural bias, media presence, ROE, and distance from the crisis location. Offsetting their inherent weaknesses, enemy forces seek an advantage in urban terrain to remain dispersed and decentralized, adapting their tactics to provide the best success in countering a US response. These threats range from units equipped with small arms, mortars, machine guns, antiarmor weapons, and mines to very capable mechanized and armor forces equipped with current generation equipment. Urban environments also provide many passive dangers such as disease from unsanitary conditions and psychological illnesses. While the active threats vary widely, many techniques are common to all. Figure 2-41 provides a set of tactics available to potential threats opposing US forces in urban areas.

a. General. An attack on urban terrain that is well planned and executed is successful. Such an attack does not have to be casualty or resource intensive. An attacker does not necessarily need a much higher force ratio in urban terrain than in other terrain. The force ratio does, however, have an impact on the duration of combat. Urban combat consumes time that the attacker may ill afford to spend. Urban battles may take two to three times longer than anticipated. Defense in an urban area does not appear to provide a significant advantage to the defender over a defense in other terrain. A well-planned defense in an urban environment can consume the attacker's time (even without combined arms forces or sophisticated weapons), which allows the defender to put other forces to better use or to prepare for other operations. Essentially, the attacker has a favorable situation over the defender during high-intensity combat. The more restrictive the ROE, the more difficult it is for the attacker.

b. Intelligence. Most recent urban battles lost by the attacker were lost because of a failure of intelligence. Some of these battles would never have taken place if the initial intelligence were clear.

c. Surprise. Surprise can be an important asset. It is a combat multiplier, but not necessarily a decisive one. Tactical surprise can preempt effective defensive preparation.

d. Combined Arms. As in other combat, the US Army fights the urban battle as a combined arms battle.

e. Time. Urban battles can take two to three times longer than other battles and usually much longer than anticipated, which results in the expenditure of more logistics. Time may allow the defender to reorganize or redeploy forces elsewhere as he uses his forces in urban areas in economy-of-force missions.

f. Isolation. Where the attacker can isolate the defender, the outcome is certain. Even partial isolation provides the conditions for a favorable result for the attacker. Failure to isolate the defender significantly raises the cost of victory. The attacker must stem the uninterrupted flow of manpower, supplies, and weapons to the defender. No single factor appears to be as important as isolating the objective.

g. Cost. In the majority of urban battles, the cost to the attacker is high. Several factors affect the cost. Isolation of the urban area is a crucial element to the attacker; the higher the superiority of forces of the attacker, the lower the cost for the attacker. The operation must be carefully planned, and intelligence is critical. Finally, attacking forces must be trained in the TTP of urban combat. Understanding these considerations leads to lower costs. From the viewpoint of the defender, urban combat can be an economy-of-force operation or can cause attacking forces many casualties. If properly prepared, an urban defense can extract a significant cost from the attacker in men, resources, and time.

h. Rules of Engagement. The nature of modern urban combat may seriously restrict the use of weapons. Most recent urban battles have had one or both of the following restrictions imposed upon the attacker:

• To minimize civilian casualties and collateral destruction.

• To limit the use of specific ground or air weapons.

i. Logistics. Combat in urban environments may cause a dramatic increase in the demand for certain items and it certainly causes requests for items that have specific uses in urban terrain. High-intensity urban combat requires a continuous flow of ammunition and medical supplies. Commanders should consider the use of a push system to deliver supplies to units in urban terrain, based upon the type of operation they are conducting. This technique should include the push of an urban operations kit to units entering urban areas.

j. Combat Health Support. Although there is no difference in medical treatment (there is a greater reliance on self-aid/buddy aid and combat lifesavers), there are differences for evacuation in urban areas. Medical evacuation (MEDEVAC) in an urban environment presents many challenges in the location, acquisition, and evacuation of patients. Techniques may require modification to acquire and evacuate casualties from above, below, and at ground level. Further, during UO, the environment (rubble and debris) may dictate that evacuation be accomplished by litter carries rather than by vehicle or aircraft. Commanders should be prepared for evacuation from within buildings and for the possibility that air MEDEVAC may not be available due to the fragility of the aircraft and their susceptibility to small arms fire. Treatment facilities may have to be moved much farther forward than usual. Units need specific medical policies, directives, and SOPs for dealing with noncombatants.