I.5.0 CULTURAL RESOURCES
The Hanford Site is abundant in cultural sites, including such items as archaeological sites, districts, and objects; standing historical structures, locations of important historic events; and places, objects, and living or nonliving sites that are important to the practice and continuity of traditional cultures. In most cases, cultural sites are finite, unique, fragile, and nonrenewable (PNL 1989).
Archaeological sites are considered to be substantial if they are eligible for inclusion in the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP). Properties are deemed to be eligible for the NRHP if they are important in American history, architecture, archaeology, engineering, or culture.
Three categories of cultural sites are commonly delineated: prehistoric resources, historic era sites, and ethnographic or traditional cultural sites. Prehistoric sites date from before the time of written records. In the interior Pacific Northwest, prehistory refers to the period of time predating Euro-American contact with the Native American cultures and societies of the region. Historic resources are defined as those sites or properties that were occupied or used after written records became available. Structures must usually be at least 50 years old to be deemed historic. However, those items and structures that were built in support of the Manhattan Project during World War II, as well as those that are representations of the Hanford Site's defense mission during the Cold War must also be considered for historic significance (Harvey 1994). Ethnographic sites (traditional cultural sites with historic or socio-religious affiliations) are locations that are important to the heritage of contemporary communities.
The Hanford Site contains a rich diversity of known cultural sites in all three categories. The Site contains seven NRHP Districts as well as 964 sites and isolated finds representative of prehistoric, historic, and modern eras ( Neitzel 1996 ). The overall condition (i.e., integrity) and thus potential significance of Hanford Site cultural sites is high because the area has had limited public access for over 50 years. This restricted access has saved most archaeological sites from looting and other adverse impacts. Another contributing factor to the importance of the Site's cultural sites is that similar areas along the Columbia River have been inundated by hydroelectric development. The Hanford Site has not experienced this type of development nor the resultant depletion of cultural sites, because the reach of the Columbia River adjacent to the Hanford Site has not been dammed.
The Hanford Site is of particular importance to Native Americans. The Hanford Site is part of the original homeland of a number of Tribal Nations. Although no specific religious sites have been identified at the TWRS sites, Gable Mountain is a traditional cultural property located approximately 3 km (2 mi) north of the 200 Areas that would potentially experience impacts from implementation of TWRS alternatives. Further, it is the view of the affected Tribes that all natural resources, including the Sites groundwater and the Columbia River, are also cultural resources to indigenous people (CTUIR 1996).
Archaeological sites or artifacts in the 200 Areas are scarce. A review of existing data for the TWRS sites in the 200 East Area indicates that 28 cultural resource surveys have been previously conducted (ASI 1994). These surveys included 18 block-tract surveys, 7 linear surveys, and 3 historic well surveys. In all, these surveys covered approximately 1,350 ha (3,400 ac). The number of archaeological sites or artifacts recorded as the result of these surveys is limited. Findings recorded in the areas surrounding and including the TWRS sites in the 200 East Area consist of individual isolated artifacts and four archaeological sites. Cultural resource surveys of the TWRS sites and vicinity conducted in 1994 confirmed the overall scarcity of archeological sites and artifacts in the 200 East Area. These surveys indicate no archeological resources in the 200 East Area that are likely to meet the eligibility criteria for inclusion in the NRHP (PNL 1994a, b, c).
The portion of the 200 East Area where TWRS facilities are proposed includes potentially historic buildings and structures associated with the Hanford Site's defense mission. Some of these may meet NRHP eligibility criteria although they have not yet been evaluated for their historical significance. Evaluations of the buildings and structures in the 200 Areas are expected to be completed by the end of 1996 (Cushing 1995). TWRS implementation is not expected to impact these structures.
The 200 West Area has not been as completely surveyed as the 200 East Area. However, a 1988 project by the Hanford Cultural Resources Laboratory surveyed 50 percent of the undisturbed, previously unsurveyed land in the 200 West Area. This survey recorded a small number of isolated historical and prehistoric artifacts, and one extensive cultural feature that has historical significance, the White Bluffs Road (Chatters-Cadoret 1990). None of these sites or artifacts are near TWRS sites, except the White Bluffs Road.
I.5.1 PREHISTORIC RESOURCES
Current cultural resources survey data for the potential TWRS sites in the 200 East Area indicates an overall low probability for prehistoric materials in these locations. Much of the land surface in the 200 East Area has been extensively disturbed by construction and other development activity.
A previous archaeological survey of all the undeveloped portions of the 200 East Area had indicated no findings of archaeological sites or known areas of Native American interest (Chatters-Cadoret 1990). The 1994 cultural resources surveys of the TWRS site and surrounding areas found only individual isolated artifacts and sites (lithics and historic trashcan scatters) (PNL 1994a, b, c). Surveys of the proposed Phased Implementation alternative site in the easternmost portion of the 200 East Area have identified no archaeological sites or artifacts (Cadoret 1995).
As stated previously, a 50 percent survey of all undeveloped and unsurveyed portions of the 200 West Area recorded no prehistoric sites and one prehistoric artifact (Chatters-Cadoret 1990).
Cultural resources surveys of the potential Vernita Quarry borrow site recorded several prehistoric isolates and prehistoric sites. A number of prehistoric isolates and prehistoric sites were also recorded at the potential McGee Ranch borrow site. No prehistoric materials have been recorded at the potential Pit 30 borrow site. The Vernita Quarry and McGee Ranch sites are considered likely to contain more prehistoric materials (Duranceau 1995). Based on the scarcity of prehistoric resources in and around the 200 Areas, there is little likelihood of finding prehistoric resources at Pit 30.
I.5.2 HISTORICAL RESOURCES
The first Euro-Americans to enter this region were Lewis and Clark, who traveled along the Columbia and Snake rivers during their exploration of the Louisiana Territory from 1803 to 1806. Lewis and Clark were followed by fur trappers who also traversed the area on their way to more productive lands up and down the river and across the Columbia Basin. It was not until the 1860's that merchants set up stores, a freight depot, and the White Bluffs Ferry on the Hanford Reach. Chinese miners began to work the gravel bars for gold. Cattle ranches opened in the 1880's and farmers soon followed. Several small, thriving towns including Hanford, White Bluffs, and Ringold, grew up along the riverbanks in the early 20th century. Other ferries were established at Wahluke and Richmond. The towns, settlements, and nearly all other structures were razed after the U.S. Government acquired the land for the Hanford Site in the early 1940's (PNL 1989 and Cushing 1994).
The historic White Bluffs Road extends northeast-southwest across the northwest corner of the 200 West Area. It was an important transportation route during the mining, cattle ranching, and settlement eras of the 19th century, before Washington became a state. In the early 20th century, the road apparently was the primary northeast-southwest route across what is now the Hanford Site. The route was also used in prehistoric and historic times by Native Americans as a trail that connected Rattlesnake Springs with a Columbia River crossing at White Bluffs (Chatters-Cadoret 1990).
The White Bluffs Road has been nominated for the NRHP, although the segment in the 200 West Area is not considered to be a critical element in its historic value (Cushing 1994). The nomination to the NRHP is still pending. A 100-m (330-ft) easement has been created on either side of the road to protect it from uncontrolled disturbance (Cushing 1994). The CTUIR have indicated that the White Bluffs Road is an important cultural site to Native Americans. The road has been fragmented by recent activities associated with the Hanford Site (CTUIR 1996).
Historic materials from Euro-American settlement activities of the 19th and early 20th centuries have been found at both the potential Vernita Quarry and McGee Ranch borrow sites (Duranceau 1995). The McGee Ranch area has been deemed eligible for nomination to the NRHP as the McGee Ranch and Cold Creek District, in large part because of its historic sites (Cadoret 1995). No historic materials have been recorded at the potential Pit 30 borrow site.
Additional historic materials are likely to exist at both McGee Ranch and Vernita Quarry (Duranceau 1995). There is a low likelihood of important historic sites at Pit 30, although one homestead era structure is located in the area (Cadoret 1995).
Of a more recent historical nature (World War II and the Cold War period) are the nuclear reactors and associated materials processing facilities that now dominate the Hanford Site. The construction of three reactor facilities (100-B, 100-D, and 100-F) began in March 1943 as part of the Manhattan Project. In late 1944, the first reactor (100-B) became operational. Plutonium production began in early 1945 and continued into the post-war period. Plutonium for the world's first nuclear explosion test at the Trinity Site in New Mexico and for the bomb that destroyed Nagasaki was produced at the 100-B Reactor (PNL 1989 and Cushing 1994).
Additional reactors and processing facilities were constructed after World War II during the Cold War. All the reactor buildings constructed during these periods still stand, although many of the ancillary support structures have been removed. Because of its significance in contributing to international and national historical events, the 100-B Reactor has been listed individually on the NRHP and is a National Mechanical Engineering Monument ; approximately 110 other buildings have been evaluated for National Register eligibility. Other Manhattan Project facilities have yet to be evaluated. Until a full evaluation addressing each individual structure is conducted, no statement can be made about NRHP eligibility status. As mentioned in Section I.5.0, evaluation of the historic value of structure and buildings in the 200 Areas is scheduled for completion in 2000 (DOE 1996e) . The Washington State Historic Preservation Officer and DOE have determined that the Hanford Site is a Manhattan Project/Cold War era historical district (Neitzel 1996). The waste storage tanks in the 200 Areas may be considered historically substantial, and documentation of the history and use of examples of the various kinds of tanks (e.g., SSTs, DSTs) will be required ( DOE 1996e ).
The Advisory Council on Historic Preservation recognizes the need to balance the historic preservation of facilities with operational or health and safety issues. The DOE Richland Operations Office , the Advisory Council on Historic Preservation, and the Washington State Historic Preservation Office have signed a Programmatic Agreement that addresses cultural resources management of the built environment at the Hanford Site ( DOE 1996e ).
I.5.3 NATIVE AMERICAN RESOURCES
The Hanford Site is situated on lands ceded to the U.S. Government by the Confederated Tribes and Bands of the Yakama Indian Nation and the Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Indian Reservation. The Yakama Indian Nation and the Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Indian Reservation occupy reservations within 130 km (80 mi) of the Hanford Site. Until 1942, the Wanapum People resided on land that is now part of the Hanford Site. In 1942, the Wanapum People agreed to move from their residence near White Bluffs to the Priest Rapids Area. The Nez Perce Tribe also has retained rights to the Columbia River under a treaty with the U.S. Government.
The Hanford Site has been occupied by humans since the end of the last glacial period. Over 10,000 years of continuous prehistoric human activity in this largely desert environment is reflected by the extensive archaeological deposits along the river shores. Inland areas with water resources point to evidence of concentrated human activity. Recent surveys also indicate the extensive, although dispersed, use of arid lowlands for hunting. Graves are common in various settings and spirit quest monuments are still to be found on high, rocky summits of the mountains and buttes (Cushing 1994).
As mentioned previously, recent biological and cultural resource surveys of the TWRS sites and nearby areas in the 200 East Area found plant species that are of ethnobotanical significance to Native Americans (e.g., plants used for food or medicinal purposes).
Native Americans have retained traditional secular and religious ties to the Hanford Site. Certain landmarks such as Rattlesnake Mountain, Gable Mountain, Gable Butte, and various sites along the Columbia River are sacred to tribes. Native American people also consider numerous burial sites to be sacred (PNL 1989 and Cushing 1994). No specific sacred sites are known at any of the TWRS sites. However, affected Tribes indicate that other culturally important sites are found within areas that may be impacted by TWRS alternatives (i.e., downgradient in the groundwater, the Columbia River, and areas downwind of possible air releases) (CTUIR 1996).
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