4.16 OCCUPATIONAL PROTECTION
This section describes existing LLNL and SNL, Livermore programs responsible for assuring that their respective activities are executed in a manner protective of health, safety, and the environment.
Environment, Safety, and Health
It is the policy of DOE to operate LLNL and SNL, Livermore in an environmentally safe and sound manner. These facilities are required to comply with applicable federal, state, and local laws, regulations, and rules; and with directives promulgated by DOE regarding occupational safety and health.
LLNL
The Environment, Safety, and Health Council, composed of Associate Directors, assists the Laboratory Director in discharging his environment, safety, and health responsibilities. The Council (1) reviews, formulates, and recommends environment, safety, and health policies; (2) develops and recommends environment, safety, and health guidelines; (3) reviews operating procedures and recommends changes; and (4) ensures that the Laboratory's environment, safety, and health policies are implemented. The Council is chaired by the Deputy Director and is assisted by an Environment, Safety, and Health Working Group.
The Environmental Protection Department assists LLNL managers to assure that LLNL operations comply with applicable laws and regulations and that environmental impacts from LLNL operations are mitigated to the maximum extent possible. The department is organized into four divisions, each with specific responsibilities (for more details, see Figure C-1 in Appendix C):
- Environmental Monitoring and Analysis Division
- Hazardous Waste Management Division (see Appendix B)
- Environmental Restoration Division
- Operations and Regulatory Affairs Division
The Environmental Surveillance Division conducts the environmental monitoring program, and assesses health and environmental risks from releases to the environment of radioactive and nonradioactive materials from LLNL operations. The Hazardous Waste Management Division operates LLNL's hazardous, radioactive, and mixed waste management systems. The Environmental Restoration Division is responsible for investigation and remediation of sites contaminated from prior operations. The Operations and Regulatory Affairs Division oversees environmental permitting, advises on complying with environmental laws and regulations, and provides emergency response and reporting.
The Hazards Control Department is responsible for providing expertise, guidance, and services needed by LLNL management in all phases of health and safety. Hazards Control's primary responsibilities include monitoring operations to provide management with the information needed to maintain a minimal-risk work environment, providing guidance in formulating the Laboratory's health and safety policies, directives, and standards, and specifying any protective equipment that might be required by employees to perform their work assignments safely.
The Health Services Department provides emergency treatment, limited medical care, and general health education and training, and performs routine and emergency examinations. Medical attention is provided to all LLNL employees whenever an employee is concerned with, or develops signs or symptoms associated with, exposure to hazardous chemicals from spills, leaks, and releases (LLNL, 1990f). The Health Services Department also implements prevention programs for occupational illnesses and injuries, such as monitoring worker exposure data and Valley Fever prevention at LLNL Site 300. The organizations mentioned above are discussed in more detail in Appendix C.
SNL, Livermore
At SNL, Livermore, workers and line managers share responsibility for conducting work activities in a manner that produces high quality results, preserves environmental quality, and protects the health and safety of workers and members of the public. SNL, Livermore's Center for Environment, Safety, and Health and Facilities Management, assisting the line managers in fulfilling these responsibilities, oversees the following three departments: the Health Protection Department, the Environmental Protection Department, and the Safety Programs Department. A more detailed description of the organization and function of these departments is provided in Appendix C.
Before the Tiger Team Assessment conducted by DOE at SNL, Livermore in May 1990, SNL, Livermore had reorganized its Environment, Safety, and Health Department to enhance oversight of its environmental safety and health activities. In 1991, SNL, Livermore established an environmental safety and health council chaired by the Vice President and Manager of SNL, Livermore. The members of this council include the director of each line directorate, the manager of the Center for Environment, Safety and Health and Facilities Management, and the five directorate Environment, Safety and Health coordinators. These coordinators are staff members appointed to assist the directors in management of environment, safety, and health. The function of this council is to provide management oversight of SNL, Livermore environment, safety, and health programs and to recommend programs to maintain SNL, Livermore in compliance.
The SNL, Livermore Safety, Health, and Environmental Assessment Committee is responsible for ensuring that the line organizations are carrying out their environment, safety, and health responsibilities. This committee, chaired by a Director, reviews operations and operating procedures, recommends and assists in the development of environment, safety, and health guidelines, and ensures that SNL, Livermore environment, safety, and health policies are implemented.
4.16.1 Occupational Protection
4.16.1.1 Regulatory Setting
Applicable federal and state regulatory requirements and the regulatory agencies responsible for enforcement are listed in Table C-I in Appendix C.
Although the federal Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) and the California Occupational Safety and Health Act do not directly apply to LLNL and SNL, Livermore, equivalent DOE standards and requirements are enforced by DOE pursuant to a memorandum of agreement between DOE and the U.S. Department of Labor.
4.16.1.2 LLNL Occupational Protection
Each Associate Director and worker is responsible for working in a manner that produces high quality results, preserves environmental quality, and protects the health and safety of workers and members of the public. Organizations to help meet these responsibilities include the Hazards Control Department and Health Services Department. These organizations are described briefly above and discussed in more detail in Appendix C. Organization charts are also provided in Appendix C.
Special Illness Prevention Programs
LLNL Site 300 workers or visitors may be exposed to Coccidioidomycosis, a respiratory disease commonly known as Valley Fever, caused by a fungus. The disease is common in warm dry alkaline areas including the entire San Joaquin Valley. Each employee or prospective employee is tested for Valley Fever immunity before assignment to LLNL Site 300. Based on the test results and physical factors (e.g., greater susceptibility or being pregnant), employees are counseled regarding increased risk, and the Health Services Department recommends whether working at LLNL Site 300 is appropriate. An employee can work at LLNL Site 300 despite a contrary recommendation if an informed consent form is signed. The forms are included in the employee's medical record (LLNL, 1990f).
In the late 1970s, LLNL's medical director observed an unusually large number of LLNL employees with malignant melanoma. Since that time, the Laboratory and other research groups around the country have investigated potential occupational and environmental factors associated with this increase in disease. Researchers have noted that the observed incidence of malignant melanoma at LLNL is greater than the observed incidence in the local community. In addition, they have postulated relationships between increased malignant melanoma in Laboratory workers and various occupational factors. These include exposure to radioactive and hazardous materials, work at LLNL Site 300, and the presence of workers at the Pacific Test Site during a nuclear test explosion. To date, however, studies have not definitively correlated the increase in malignant melanoma among LLNL workers with any specific occupational or environmental factors. For further details on these studies, see Appendix C, section C.3.1.3.
Other Exposures and Potential Hazards
Radiation Exposures and Risk
Radionuclides emit several types of radiation with various energies and penetrating powers. The types of radiation of interest at LLNL include x rays, alpha particles, beta particles, neutrons, and gamma rays. Various types of radiation interact differently with biological tissue. Weighting factors are used to convert the organ doses to effective dose, that is, to the dose that would produce the same level of risk if delivered to the whole body.
Safety Procedures. To protect workers against radiation exposures, facilities and operations are rigorously analyzed and must meet LLNL Health and Safety Manual requirements before use or start-up (LLNL, 1990f). Safety procedures, Operational Safety Procedures or Standard Operating Procedures, are developed by program personnel with assistance from the Hazards Control Department before nonroutine operations or procedures can begin. Additionally, workers are trained in proper work procedures and provided with, and trained in use of, appropriate protective equipment. Workplaces are regularly monitored and inspected to assure safe working conditions. This monitoring shows that, despite the safeguards, some activities may expose workers to radiation above background.
Radiation Exposure Characterization. Internal radiation exposure occurs when radionuclides, such as tritium, enter the body by inhalation, ingestion, or absorption through open wounds or intact skin. Internal radiation dose is determined primarily through routine urinalyses as part of LLNL's bioassay program (LLNL, 1989c).
Tritium, a naturally occurring radioisotope of hydrogen, is one of the radioisotopes used at LLNL. The tritium used at LLNL is made in tritium-producing reactors at other DOE facilities. Its main forms are tritiated water and tritiated hydrogen gas, although it also substitutes for hydrogen in organic materials and in metal hydrides.
At LLNL there is a greater incidence of internal exposures of workers handling tritium than those handling other radionuclides. When inhaled or ingested, tritiated water is rapidly assimilated and within hours is uniformly mixed in body fluids and soft tissue. The assimilation of tritiated hydrogen gas is much lower, typically resulting in radiation doses much lower than for an equivalent intake of tritiated water. Once in body fluids, the rate of elimination of tritium from the body is fairly fast, with one half of the original intake typically being eliminated in about 10 days. To further reduce the duration of exposure to tritium, this elimination rate can be increased by increasing fluid intake, resulting in more rapid turnover of body fluids and faster excretion of the radioactive material.
Most LLNL tritium handling operations occur in the Hydrogen Research Facility, Building 331. Special precautions minimize exposures to those handling and using tritium. For example, it is received and shipped as metal hydrides, the most insoluble and least mobile form of tritium. Onsite operations are conducted in gloveboxes and hoods, standard laboratory equipment that prevents direct worker contact and minimizes the chance of inhalation or inadvertent ingestion. In work areas, continuous room air monitoring and frequent contamination checks of accessible surfaces assist in ensuring safe working conditions.
All workers in the Hydrogen Research Facility, Building 331, have weekly urinalyses to monitor tritium intake from routine workplace operations. During 1990, the most recent year for which complete information is available, the maximum internal radiation effective dose equivalent for any Building 331 worker was 0.16 rem, or 3.2 percent of DOE 5-rem annual dose limit (Mansfield, 1991; DOE, 1988e). In 1990, the sum of internal radiation doses received by all Building 331 workers, their collective dose, was 0.5 person-rem (Mansfield, 1991). Six individuals accounted for most of this collective dose. Figure 4.16-1 shows the maximum individual and collective effective dose equivalents from tritium exposures at Building 331 from 1986 through 1990.
A routine bioassay program is conducted for workers who have a potential for intake of radioactive material. This program is conducted for workers in the Heavy Element Facility (Building 251), the Plutonium Facility (Building 332), the Waste Treatment and Storage (Building 612) area, and other selected areas. Whole-body counting is also performed annually for personnel who have the potential for intake of radionuclides based on work activities. Additionally, room air monitors, routine worker monitoring, and periodic radiation surveys assess the work environment. Should these monitoring programs indicate a potential exposure, additional bioassays are performed.
Plutonium and other transuranic elements are also handled in gloveboxes and hoods to minimize inhalation and inadvertent ingestion. Inhaled plutonium is deposited in the respiratory tract. From the respiratory tract, the plutonium can be transferred to the lymph nodes, the bones or the liver, or eliminated via the gastrointestinal tract or in urine. A small fraction of ingested plutonium, about 0.001 to 0.01 percent, may be absorbed by the gastrointestinal tract into the bloodstream and deposited in the bone, where about half of the original deposition is eliminated in approximately 50 years.
External radiation exposure occurs when radiation from sources outside the body pass through the skin. These exposures occur from sources such as radioactive materials, accelerators, or x-ray machines. External exposures are measured using personal thermoluminescent dosimeters, devices that all LLNL personnel wear attached to their security badges. The dosimeter measures the amount of external exposure received by workers while onsite.
Weapons-grade plutonium, used in some LLNL research projects, is a mixture of radioisotopes of plutonium and other transuranic elements (radionuclides with atomic numbers greater than uranium). Some of these radioisotopes and their decay products emit gamma rays which can cause external radiation exposures. During the past 5 years, the major source of external radiation exposure to LLNL workers has been the Plutonium Facility (Building 332). A significant component of the personnel radiation doses in the Plutonium Facility results from handling radioactive materials in that facility's storage vault. Figure 4.16-2 shows the maximum individual dose and the collective annual dose from external radiation at the Plutonium Facility from 1986 through 1990.
Total Radiation Dose from LLNL Operations. Total LLNL worker radiation dose includes the internal plus the external radiation exposure received while at LLNL. 1990 LLNL worker exposure records indicate most measurable radiation doses received were from external sources. During 1990, individual LLNL workers received radiation doses ranging from background levels to a high of 1.47 rem; the 1.47 rem dose, due entirely to external radiation, represents 29 percent of the annual occupational dose limit of 5 rem established by DOE (LLNL, 1991k; DOE, 1988e).
The average radiation dose above background for all LLNL workers in 1990 was 0.003 rem, or about 0.06 percent of the annual dose limit. Ninety-seven percent of LLNL workers received only background levels of radiation (LLNL, 1991k). In 1990 the sum of all external radiation doses to LLNL workers was 28.0 person-rem, and the sum of all internal radiation doses was 0.5 person-rem from the intake of tritium. Figure 4.16-3 shows the distribution of total doses from external exposures for 1988, 1989, and 1990. Figure 4.16-4 shows total annual doses to all workers in person-rem due to external exposures and internal exposures at LLNL from 1971 to 1990 (LLNL, 1991k).
LLNL is concerned about total lifetime radiation exposure. Accordingly, LLNL exposure records include internal doses that continue to be received from internal deposition of radionuclides from previous exposures at other DOE facilities as well as doses from current operations.
Inadvertent Exposures. In addition to low-level exposures from routine LLNL operations, inadvertent releases of radioactive materials may also cause LLNL worker exposures. Since 1983, two inadvertent events resulted in 5 persons receiving doses from less than 0.02 to 1.1 rem effective dose equivalent. These events are discussed in detail in Appendix C. In May 1988, a worker disassembling a contaminated microscope received a committed effective dose equivalent of 0.1 rem. Most recently, on April 2, 1991, Hydrogen Research Facility (Building 331) workers inhaled tritiated water vapor while preparing a tritium reservoir for pressure and content analysis. Failure of the reservoir's valve resulted in a leak of approximately 144 curies of tritium into the work area. The highest individual dose received was an effective dose equivalent of 1.1 rem to one worker. Three other workers received doses of less than 0.02 rem.
In addition to these two events, since 1980, four other LLNL workers have had bioassays showing recordable intakes of radionuclides other than tritium, and these intakes also resulted from nonroutine events. The calculated 50-year committed effective dose equivalents to these four workers range from 0.17 to 2.03 rem (Mansfield, 1991). These doses may be compared to the DOE dose limit (for design and operation) of 5 rem (DOE, 1998e). The 50-year committed effective dose equivalent is the dose received over a 50-year period from the date of intake.
Radiation Risk Characterization. The major adverse effects from ionizing radiation are carcinogenicity (ability to cause cancer), mutagenicity (ability to cause genetic or heritable defects), and teratogenicity (ability to cause nonheritable birth defects) (EPA, 1989b). For low-level but longer duration exposures, the primary risk is developing some cancers. Very large exposures are required to induce acute effects. Mutagenic effects can occur only during the reproductive period of approximately 30 years. Teratogenic effects can occur only during gestation.
When large groups are exposed to ionizing radiation, the fatal cancers that may result from such exposures are estimated by considering the radiation doses received, and the group's size and age distribution. Various organizations including the EPA and the International Commission of Radiological Protection (ICRP) publish cancer risk estimators and standard methodologies for calculating population (i.e., large group) risks (51 Fed. Reg. 1092-1216, 1986; ICRP, 1990). Using the standard risk assessment techniques from EPA and ICRP along with 1990 radiation doses to LLNL workers, which ranged from background to a maximum of 1.47 rem effective dose equivalent, the probability that the highest-exposed individual would develop a fatal cancer is about 1 in 1400 and the chance of a deleterious health effect is about 1 in 1000 (see Appendix C for the basis for these calculations). The collective effective dose equivalent to LLNL workers during 1990 was 28.5 person-rem. Using the above risk estimators, the lifetime chance of a single fatal cancer and total health detriment among all workers from one year of operation is estimated to be 1 in 70 and 1 in 50, respectively.
The National Academy of Sciences Committee on the Effects of Ionizing Radiation cautions that risk estimators yield uncertain results at very low doses; the actual risk may be zero (BEIR-V, 1990). For comparison, the annual background radiation dose to 12,000 people, the approximate LLNL and SNL, Livermore employee population, is approximately 3600 person-rem. This yields lifetime estimates of fatal cancers and of total health detriments of 1.8 and 2.6, respectively.
Table 4.16-1 presents the internal and external radiation doses received by LLNL workers during 1990 and probabilities of fatal cancer and total health detriment based on such doses.
Exposures to Hazardous Materials
LLNL operations may expose some workers to hazardous materials (such as solvents, metals, and carcinogens). LLNL is a research and development facility. Typically, Laboratory workers are exposed to low levels of a wide variety of chemicals throughout the duration of their research. The current radioactive material and chemical inventories to which workers may be exposed are listed in Appendix A. Radioactive and hazardous wastes are discussed in Appendix B. In order to protect workers against illness and injury, LLNL has several programs and procedures in place to provide direction for monitoring, handling, storage, and use of these materials. These programs and procedures include the Hazard Communication Program, Chemical Hygiene Program, Respiratory Protection Program, and procedures for handling and use of carcinogens and biohazard materials. The Hazards Control Department keeps records of measured concentrations of hazardous materials. During special work activities, concentrations are measured by personal breathing zone and area air monitors (LLNL, 1991b). The 1990 records were reviewed to identify buildings or operations where exposures may be occurring (see Appendix C). These records demonstrate that in the areas monitored, few chemical concentrations were found to exceed the time-weighted average (15/1250). This indicates that the general airborne concentrations of chemicals at LLNL are not elevated in the areas that were sampled (LLNL, 1991b). Additional information regarding worker exposure to toxic materials is found in Appendix C.
Biohazards
Specific biological materials used or handled at LLNL are potentially hazardous. These materials are generated as a result of clinical/emergency and research activities. Individuals can be exposed to biohazards as a result of patient care procedures, and the collection, handling, processing, and disposal of various human body substances (e.g., blood, tissues) that may harbor pathogens. The potential exposure of workers at LLNL to biohazards is limited through standard work techniques and practices documented in the health and safety manual. In addition, whenever possible, all contaminated laboratory equipment and tools are sterilized prior to discarding or washing (LLNL, 1990d).
Carcinogens
At LLNL, chemical carcinogens are used by Laboratory employees only when required by a specific research project. When the use of the chemical carcinogens is unavoidable, every effort is made to minimize employee exposure to levels as low as reasonably achievable. Any work involving the use of chemical carcinogens must follow specific procedures for: purchasing and receiving, posting and labeling, packaging and storage, inventory, and decontamination and disposal. Proper employee education, training, and medical surveillance are also a part of the general requirements for usage of chemical carcinogens.
The use, synthesis, and storage of carcinogens must be evaluated by an industrial hygienist. Depending on the nature of the chemical use, the quantity of material involved, and the control measures engaged, an Operational Safety Procedure may or may not be required. For certain highly potent carcinogens, the area industrial hygienist may request the user to maintain a log of the chemical and the quantity used.
The purchasing and receiving of chemical carcinogens is controlled by several factors. Laboratory guidelines restrict the purchase of these chemicals to only the amount of material necessary for the specific project. Some carcinogenic solvents, such as benzene and chloroform, are available from internal LLNL Stores upon authorization from Materials Management. Authorization to use such chemicals requires the user to show an appropriate Operation Safety Procedure or to obtain approval from the area industrial hygienist. Unless approved by an area industrial hygienist, carcinogens shall not be ordered through open purchase orders.
Handling and internal transfer of carcinogens must be conducted with extreme care to avoid any accidental release or personnel exposure. In addition, certain potential carcinogens may require additional handling requirements, similar to those for chemical carcinogens, including: initial delivery of the material to Materials Management, actual inspection and opening of the package by a Health and Safety Technician in a controlled environment, and storage of the material in double containers in a locked cabinet.
All employees who work with carcinogens shall receive sufficient information and training so that they may work safely and understand the relative significance of the potential hazard they may encounter.
Physical Hazards
LLNL employees could also be exposed to physical hazards such as magnetic fields, noise, electric shock, tripping hazards, and lasers. LLNL has guidelines for mitigating these types of hazards, and occurrences of such hazards are monitored by the Hazards Control Department. No recorded occupational injuries or illnesses from exposure to nonionizing radiation or noise occurred from 1987 through 1991 (LLNL, 1991l). There were 14 accidents at LLNL between 1987 and 1991 requiring notification of DOE. All 14 were minor incidents and workers were released after treatment on the same day. (These incidents are discussed in section C.3.1.2 of Appendix C.)
LLNL records occupational injuries pursuant to DOE orders that utilize OSHA criteria. There were 169 recordable injuries (i.e., injuries that require medical attention beyond first aid and are reported to DOE) at LLNL in 1990, resulting in 4081 lost or restricted activity workdays. Of these injuries, 49 percent were from overexertion (e.g., muscle strains, back strains), 29 percent were wounds, 15 percent were cumulative trauma (e.g., carpal tunnel syndrome), 3 percent were skeletal injuries, and 4 percent were categorized as "other" (LLNL, 1991l).
Table 4.16-1 Radiation Doses and Health Effects from Occupational Exposures in 1990
| Site | Collective Dose (person-rem) | Chance of Fatal Cancera | Chance of Total Detrimenta |
| LLNL Livermore Site | |||
| Internal exposures at Building 331 | 0.5 | 0.00025 | 0.00036 |
| External exposures at Building 332 | 19.6 | 0.010 | 0.014 |
| Other external exposures | 8.4 | 0.0042 | 0.0061 |
| Total Collective Radiation Dose: | 28.5 | 0.014 | 0.021 |
| SNL, Livermore | |||
| Internal exposures at Building 968 | 1.1 | 0.00055 | 0.00080 |
| External exposures | 2.4 | 0.0012 | 0.0018 |
| Total Collective Radiation Dose: | 3.5 | 0.0018 | 0.0026 |
| Combined Total: (LLNL Livermore site plus SNL, Livermore) | 32.0 | 0.016 | 0.023 |
| Background Radiationb | 3600 | 1.8 | 2.6 |
a Numbers less than one represent the chance of a fatal cancer or the chance of total detriment; numbers greater than one represent the estimated number of occurrences in the affected population of 12,000 persons.
b Based on an annual background radiation dose of 0.3 rem per person to a population of 12,000.
4.16.1.3 SNL, Livermore Occupational Protection
Exposures and Hazards
Radiation Exposures and Risk
Radiation Exposure Characterization. The only source of routine low-level occupational internal radiation exposure at SNL, Livermore is the Tritium Research Laboratory (Building 968). Building 968 work areas are monitored continuously for tritium, and all workers in the building have routine bioassays to monitor internal tritium exposures. Additional bioassays are performed for workers when room air monitors or routine work area contamination surveys indicate a potential exposure.
In 1990, the maximum effective dose equivalent from internal tritium exposure to any worker at Building 968 was 0.20 rem, or 4 percent of the annual DOE dose limit of 5 rem (SNL, Livermore, 1991k; DOE, 1988e). The collective dose, the sum of the internal radiation doses, received by all workers at Building 968, was 1.1 person-rem in 1990 (SNL, Livermore, 1991k). Figure 4.16-5 shows the maximum individual and collective occupational doses from tritium exposures for 1986 through 1990 at Building 968.
From 1986 through 1990, there were two inadvertent events resulting in two workers at SNL, Livermore having positive bioassays for depleted uranium. In both cases, uranium concentrations in the urine were less than 10 micrograms per liter, which is below the threshold of 15 micrograms per liter requiring further action, and less than one-tenth the level that causes measurable effects on the kidneys. In one instance exposure resulted from cleanup following a high component test in Building 961. The other exposure occurred during normal operations.
In addition to routine, low-level exposures in Building 968, inadvertent releases of tritium have exposed SNL, Livermore workers to radiation. Since 1983, two inadvertent events resulted in occupational radiation doses of 0.015 rem to 1.65 rem to eight workers. Six of these workers received an effective dose equivalent of less than 0.05 rem and one worker received an effective dose equivalent of 0.015 rem. The largest radiation dose equivalent (1.65 rem) to a worker occurred in 1987, when approximately 2.5 curies of tritiated water vapor leaked into a room from a damaged certified high pressure gas container.
Thermoluminescent dosimeters are used at SNL, Livermore to monitor external radiation exposure. These dosimeters are issued to employees working in areas where they may receive a radiation dose of more than 0.1 rem per year and to employees who are recommended for personnel monitoring by their supervisor. During 1990, the highest individual radiation dose from external exposure was 0.24 rem, representing 4.8 percent of DOE's 5-rem annual occupational dose limit (DOE, 1988e). Most SNL, Livermore employees do not receive any measurable external radiation exposures above background levels (SNL, Livermore, 1990b). The sum of all radiation doses from external exposures, the collective dose, was 2.4 person-rem during 1990. Figure 4.16-6 shows the average distribution of collective doses from external exposure at SNL, Livermore for 1988, 1989, and 1990 (SNL, Livermore, 1990b).
Radiation Risk Characterization. A general discussion of the principal adverse effects from ionizing radiation is found in section 4.16.1.2. During 1990, the radiation doses to SNL, Livermore workers ranged from background to a maximum of 0.20 rem effective dose equivalent. Using the risk estimators for fatal cancer and total health detriment discussed in section 4.16.1.2, the chance that the highest exposed individual would develop a fatal cancer from this radiation dose is 1 in 10,000 and the chance of any detrimental health effect is 1 in 7000.
The internal and external radiation doses received by workers at SNL, Livermore during 1990 are in section 4.16.1.2 (see Table 4.16-1). Table 4.16-1 also shows the chance of fatal cancer and total health detriment to the workers from these radiation doses. The collective effective dose equivalent to SNL, Livermore workers during 1990 was 3.5 person-rem. Using the cancer risk and total health detriment estimators discussed above, the chance of a single cancer among all workers from one year of operation of the facilities is about 1 in 600 for fatal cancers and 1 in 400 for total health detriment.
Exposures to Hazardous Materials
The wide range of research conducted at SNL, Livermore requires a variety of chemical and physical agents, including numerous hazardous materials. SNL, Livermore is a research and development facility; therefore, exposures to chemical and physical agents are generally low level in nature.
The major portion of the chemicals used at SNL, Livermore are distributed among six buildings. Small quantities of chemicals (e.g., liquids and gaseous fuel), are used in the Combustion Research Facility, Building 906, and two laboratories, Buildings 913 and 916. In the shop, Building 913, and plant maintenance, Building 963, small quantities of chemicals, oils, greases, and solvents are used.
Those employees whose work routinely exposes them to low levels of toxic or carcinogenic materials are placed on a special medical monitoring program. The Industrial Hygiene Organization also monitors the workplace to ensure that appropriate protective measures are in place and exposures are kept as low as reasonable achievable.
Physical Hazards
Potential occupational hazards result from noise or ergonomic factors (e.g., repetitive motion). SNL, Livermore also has various radio frequency and microwave-generating sources.
Exposure monitoring is initiated for any hazard when it is believed that exposure levels may exceed regulatory action levels (e.g., OSHA-permissible exposure levels). For example, employees exposed to excess levels of noise are placed in a hearing conservation program to routinely test their hearing to monitor whether the engineering controls are effective (SNL, Livermore, 1991b, 1991c, 1991h).
Occupational safety at SNL, Livermore was evaluated by reviewing the OSHA logs containing summary information on the number and types of accidents occurring each calendar year (SNL, Livermore, 1991n). For the 5-year period from 1986 through 1990 there were 133 accidents recorded. The following occupational injuries were identified as being the most common types of accidents (SNL, Livermore, 1991n; SNL, Livermore, 1992a).
- The most commonly reported injuries during this period were 36 cases involving lacerations (27 percent) and 28 cases of back pain or strains (21 percent).
According to records, three events at SNL, Livermore between 1987 and 1991 required workers to receive medical treatment. These events involved two minor burns and inhalation of floor cleaning solution. These incidents are described in Appendix C.
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