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M48H (CM11) Brave Tiger Main Chariot

China’s first self-made tank - M48H Brave Tiger - is a combination of M48’s turret and M60A3 chassis. It is equipped with a new fire control system and the 105mm main gun is strictly speaking a kind of "assembly vehicle".

Like many countries that received US aid, the Chinese Army also used US-aided tanks as its main equipment at the beginning. However, with the severance of diplomatic relations between Taiwan and the United States, our country's sources of arms are on the verge of severing. In this situation, the government has launched a number of plans to cultivate its own national defense industry, including self-made main tanks. In 1979, the loyalty group responsible for the research and development of tanks was established and later expanded into the tank development center. In 1984, the War Development Center cooperated with the General Dynamics Land System (GDLS) of the United States to plan the next-generation main combat vehicle of the Chinese Army.

Due to the restrictions of the 817 Communiqué, the United States was unwilling to blatantly export the complete M60A3 to Taiwan at that time, so the two sides adopted a workaround, with the M60A3 chassis and M48 turret, with 105mm main gun and a new integrated fire control system. , Become a unique Taiwanese version of the tank. The Chinese military assigns this new tank CM11 the number (Note) , while the US military calls it M48H. H means a hybrid of M48 and M60 (Hybrid). In 1988, two M48H prototypes were manufactured and shipped to the US Equipment Test Command for testing.

On April 14, 1990, the M48H was officially released and entered service. It was named the Brave Tiger. Since then, the Chinese Army has entered the era of 105mm main guns, thermal imaging cameras, and shooting capabilities on the move. More than ten years late in Western countries. A total of 450 M48Hs were produced. It was originally expected to be delivered in 1992. However, due to the 1991 Persian Gulf War, the United States controlled the export of many military products, including the electronic parts required by the M48H. It was only completed in 1994 and was in full service. In addition, afterwards, Taiwan also improved the current M48A3 with the M48H fire control system and main gun to become the CM12.

The M48H uses the same chassis as the M60A3, and a modified M48A2 turret (both are stock kits that were not sent to the production line in the United States), so the appearance is exactly like the M60 early type that also uses a tortoise shell-shaped cast turret. Because the M48's turret is lighter than the M60A3, the mobility of the M48H will be slightly better than that of the M60A3, which is comparable to the early M60, and it is impossible to reach world-class standards. The M48's tortoise shell-shaped cast turret is not as good as the M60A3's turret in terms of anti-ballistic shape or armor thickness, which means that the M48H has suffered a loss in protection. M48H completely inherits the power system of M60A3 (including AVDS-1790-2C diesel engine and CD-850-6-A1 automatic gearbox), load-bearing system (torsion rod suspension, first, second, and six pairs of load-bearing wheels) equipped with shock absorbers) and T-142 double-sheath crawlers, but use the same load wheels as the active M48A3 of the Chinese Army, presumably to simplify logistics maintenance operations.

Like the M60 series, the M48H does not have side skirts to protect the suspension system and suppress the raised dust. This point really needs to be improved. The NBC protection system of the M48H is also the same as the M60A3. It uses the M13A1 filter ventilator to send fresh air to the M25 mask worn by the occupants through the ventilation pipe. The M48H’s turret battle room is equipped with a sea dragon automatic instant fire extinguishing system. Its optical detector can detect the light source within 5m/s and release extinguishing agent within 150ms to extinguish the fire.

The fire extinguishing system in the engine room is started manually, and can be started from outside the vehicle in an emergency; both fire extinguishing systems use Hailong 1301 fire extinguishing agent, which will not cause harm to the human body. Due to the weak armor of the M48H turret, the army declared from the beginning that it would add high-explosive reactive armor to it. However, it was not until February 2003 that the Chinese army disclosed two additional high-explosive reactive armors (ERA) made by French GIAT. ), installed on the front and sides of the turret. The configuration of this GIAT armor is very different from the more common Israeli style or Soviet style. Several groups of ERA are integrated on a base, and these rectangular ERAs are arranged in a vertical row and upward. Tilting is said to allow its explosive fragments to fly upwards, reducing the chance of injuring one's own infantry.

In terms of armament, the M48H abandoned the M48A3’s 90mm main gun and replaced it with a 105mm 51-caliber rotary gun produced by the Joint Logistics 202 Factory, which is a Taiwanese imitation of the American M68A1 105mm tank gun (the body is believed to be It is from the M68A1 main gun replaced by the US Army and remanufactured). It was officially launched in 1988 and began production in 1990. Compared with the original American M68A1, the Joint Logistics 105mm tank gun has slightly different details, such as a different thermal sleeve and no body curve detector. M68 is an L-7 designed by the United Kingdom and authorized to be produced in the United States, and then improved by the United States. It has reliable performance and a wide range of shells.

Although the mainstream caliber of modern Western tank guns has been increased to 120mm, the current 105mm gun was deemed still suitable for use in China. As a result, the 105mm shell is smaller in size and weight, which can better match the size and physical strength of the Oriental; more importantly, the revolver Bore guns use a much wider range of ammunition than the current mainstream smoothbore guns, including the high-explosive ammunition (HE or HESH) that the latter lacks; if the Communist Army launches an amphibious landing operation, it is most likely that the first landing will be lightly armed infantry and vehicles. Light vehicles are also the most likely targets. In addition, the Communist army must take a large number of landing craft. These are soft targets and are suitable for dealing with high-explosive shells. If armor-piercing shells are used, they will be difficult to kill in large numbers and effectively.

The Joint Logistics produced a total of about one thousand 105mm guns of this type. In addition to the M48H, they were also used to replace the original 90mm guns of the M48A3. The second-hand M60A3 TTS that Taiwan purchased from the United States later was also used. This type of artillery was replaced to unify the body of the main tanks of the national army. In terms of secondary armament, M48H dismantled the M48’s original closed captain's rotating turret and replaced it with the Israeli-designed Urdan captain's rotating turret. Due to the open design, the overall height of the Urdan is low, and the machine gun holder can be replaced, which is helpful for reducing the height of the vehicle. However, the relative disadvantage is that the captain must expose hid upper body when using the machine gun (M48, M60 cars). The hatch can be sealed in a rotating turret to operate the machine gun), exposed to the threat of enemy small-caliber weapons and nuclear, biological and chemical threats. The Urdan gun turret does not have a full perimeter periscope, but there are three periscopes on it. In addition to the normal opening of the turret top cover, a small slit can be opened, allowing the captain to obtain a 360-degree view.

In addition to the captain's machine gun and coaxial machine gun, the M48H also adds a loaded cell phone gun to enhance its melee firepower. The M48H's coaxial machine gun and loading mobile phone gun are both the new 74-style 7.62mm machine gun developed by Lian Logistics, and the commander's anti-aircraft machine gun is 12.7mm. Each side of the M48H turret is equipped with an M239 60mm six-pack smoke grenade launcher, which is the same as the M60A3. This is the first time that a Taiwan army tank has such equipment.

The most proud achievement of the M48H is the fire control system, which is more high-end than the M60A3. It is claimed to be the same level as the American M1 tank, including an AN/VGS-2 gunner that is the same as the M60A3 TTS. Thermal imaging camera (produced in cooperation with American manufacturers), an AN/GVS-5 yttrium-neodymium garnet (Nd-YAG) laser rangefinder (originally presumed to be a carbon dioxide laser rangefinder), and M1A1 digital/analog mixed ballistic calculation electro-integrated brain (M60A3 is a pure analog M21), these are all American products.

The biggest challenge that M48H faced in the development was the integration of different equipment into a set of fire control system, which caused a delay in the development of the M48H. The gunner has a control panel that can input commands and shell selections into the M1A1 ballistic computer, which then receives information from the roll sensor, crosswind sensor and laser rangefinder, calculates the shooting parameters, and then It is transmitted to the turret rotation and main gun servo mechanism to align the target through the interface. The commander has the same control grip as the gunner and can overtake the turret. Like the M60A3, the M48H is equipped with an M105D tubular sight coaxial with the main gun as a backup sighting device. The range of CVS-5 laser rangefinder is 300~7990m, which is much longer than the VVG-2 of M60A3. Before the M48H, the Taiwan Army’s tanks did not have any night vision fire control observation system, but this time it was able to jump and need to project an infrared light source, the infrared telescope with poor efficiency and the direct use of an infrared thermal imaging camera was a great innovation.

The M48H is equipped with a two-dimensional body stabilization system, which is more complete than the one-dimensional stabilization device of the M60A3, so it truly has the ability to shoot while on the move. Its gyro stabilization system can automatically drive the body follow-up device to maintain the muzzle at a predetermined level. On the aiming axis, the ballistic driver is also driven to keep the crosshair of the sight facing forward. Compared with the M60A3, the M48H's fire control system is not only more advanced in many components, but the other main difference is that the M60A3's laser rangefinder is installed in the earlier M60 that used to install the optical rangefinder. The window (operated by the commander), and the M48H integrates the laser rangefinder together with the thermal imager into the gunner’s sight. The gunner is responsible for the ranging work; such laser rangefinder and infrared thermal imager The optical path is the same, the boresight correction operation is more convenient, and the laser ranging data can be directly projected on the thermal image display.

Similar to M60A3, the M48H turret gyration and gun body pitch use traditional hydraulic braking instead of the more advanced electric servo. Not only is it more complicated and inefficient, the failure rate is higher, and the fire hazard is high, but the gun control and stability will be reduced by factors such as air return and oil leakage. It needs frequent maintenance and adjustment. In American tests, the M48H prototype was superior to M60A3 TTS in terms of night combat capability and hit rate. (M48H had a first round hit rate of 82% against a 2000m external fixed target. 75% for targets beyond 1500m).

However, the M48H did not have a full-perimeter sight for the commander, and had to use an optical channel to share the image of the thermal imaging camera with the gunner, indicating that the shooting command command must still be dictated by the commander to the gunner and cannot be automatically directed. The ability to receive multiple targets is compromised. There are three periscopes in the driver's seat of the M48H, and the central one can be equipped with AN/VVS-2 starlight night vision goggles. The Vehicle Development Center purchased a total of 550 sets of related kits for the production of M48H fire control systems. In addition to 450 M48Hs, the surplus was used for the improvement of M48A3. The number of improved M48A3 increased to more than 250, so the war development center should have further purchased related fire control kits).

Since the M48H is the first integrated tank in Taiwan, there was early news that the M48H’s turret and the hull were not well integrated; and the M48H used the old and small M48A2 turret to be inserted into the 105mm tank gun. The newly integrated fire control system appeared to lack space, which not only reduces the comfort of personnel, but also affects the heat dissipation capacity of internal equipment, leading to an increase in the failure rate of electronic components. Although the M48H’s fire control system is better than the M60A3 on the book, it was discovered after the service that its more sophisticated fire control system was not compatible with Taiwan’s hot and humid environment, coupled with improper operation and lack of logistical energy, and other national armors. The old problems of the army have faced many failures. Therefore, the overall evaluation of the M48H's service in the army is not as good as the second-hand M60A3 TTS purchased from the United States later.

From the perspective of the M48H, the overall performance of the M48H is certainly not among the top-notch levels. However, for China, which was facing the difficulties of arms sales and lacked technical sources, it was very difficult to achieve this goal. Some people compare the Type 88 tank developed by South Korea at the same time with the M48H. However, due to the close relationship between South Korea and the United States, the Type 88 gained a large amount of technical inheritance from the US M1 tank. The conditions are far superior to that of Taiwan. It is totally unfair to mock the M48H.

Obviously, however, the M48H's improvement to Taiwan's tank industry is only limited to assembly, integration, and the development of some minor parts. The most important engines, gearboxes, fire control observation systems, and vehicle body turrets on the vehicle are all used. The imported kit can only be regarded as an assembled vehicle at best, and there is still a long way to go before the self-developed production. For this reason, some people criticized Da Fei Zhouzhang for "assembling" a tank with a comprehensive performance that is approximately the same level as the M60A3. It is completely uneconomical, but this is based on a special strategy adopted by the time. In any case, the emergence of M48H is still an important milestone in Taiwan's tank industry.

At present, the M48H's mobility and basic defense capabilities are inferior, especially where the defense problem is the most serious. The maximum thickness of the front armor of its cast turret is only 110mm. Most of the PLA’s active infantry light anti-tank rockets or anti-tank missiles can easily penetrate this armor, so strengthening the armor is the most urgent matter. In addition to the existing reactive armor, it is actually best to use composite armor that can withstand both kinetic energy-piercing projectiles and shaped charges. The first wave of the PLA’s landing infantry or airborne troops will inevitably carry a large number of individual anti-armor weapons, and the anti-tank missiles and rockets manufactured by China are sufficient to effectively deal with the armor of Taiwan's CM11 and M60A3. According to the experience of the Yom Kippur War, if the tank protection capability is insufficient or there is no accompanying support of infantry and artillery, facing this kind of well-prepared infantry formation is tantamount to seeking a dead end.

Therefore, on the one hand, Taiwan's army must pay attention to the coordinated operations of various arms, and must also improve the protection capabilities of the main combat vehicles in active service. Due to the rapid advancement in science and technology, the previous generation of combat vehicles such as M48H and M60A3 entered the 1990s, are all below the tonnage of the main tank, and they don't have enough defensive capabilities. And if Taiwan chose to strengthen the armor, the M48H and M60A3's insufficient mobility will be further reduced. Although the main combat vehicle does not have much movement depth in the beachhead combat stage, the main combat vehicle must be assembled in the theater as soon as possible (Moreover, the road conditions are often poor and it is necessary to go off-road.) Mobility is still very important for tanks (not to forget that Taiwan has a lot of rugged terrain).

As for firepower, the firepower of the M68 105mm gun is still sufficient for most current needs, and the gun can use the type of ammunition that is lacking in smoothbore guns, but that Taiwan needs more. Therefore, the proportion of the main artillery shells carried by the tanks of Taiwan must be in accordance with the actual needs of the country, rather than copying the US military's guidelines for the "tank war", lest there will be no suitable ammunition available.

When considering the needs of the army's tanks, the first thing to consider is often the battle between the two main tanks. The new-generation Type 96 combat vehicle of the Chinese Communist Army is equipped with a 125mm smoothbore gun, composite armor, and high-power engine. It is far superior to Taiwan's main combat vehicle in terms of technical standards and various performance measures. However, because the PLA’s current power for amphibious operations is limited, it is difficult to transport enough tanks. Therefore, no matter how excellent the tank performance is, it may not play a critical role in the battle situation (don’t forget that Taiwan also has AH-1W attack helicopters, etc.). In addition, the first thing Taiwan tanks encounter is most likely to be enemy light troops or infantry with anti-tank weapons. Therefore, when defining the needs of tanks, Taiwan must not put all its strength on the tanks.

In addition, many people think that the main tank is not suitable for island countries like Taiwan, and even think that Taiwan's army is too large. In fact, if Taiwan significantly reduces its defenses on the land, it means that the PLA can dominate the outcome of the Taiwan Strait campaign as long as it obtains air and sea dominance. With the disparity in military strength and material gap between the two sides, it should only be a matter of time before Taiwan’s navy and air force are exhausted. Then Taiwan will have no bargaining chips. From a practical perspective, if the Taiwan Strait campaign enters the landing stage, it will be difficult for the PLA to transport a large number of heavy mechanized equipment to Taiwan in the early stage. Taiwan's army can use light/heavy mechanized units as the core, with infantry, artillery, and attack helicopters. The formation of an offensive and defensive, flexible and mobile force hits the fatal injuries of the PLA's sea-crossing forces, making it more difficult for them to build a stable beachhead.

The Taiwan Army must not only strengthen precision artillery weapons with long ranges such as multiple rockets or tactical missiles, as well as wheeled armored vehicles that can quickly reach the theater and project force, but also must not neglect heavy equipment such as main combat vehicles and self-propelled artillery. In addition, some people have suggested that the main tanks are too bulky for island nations like Taiwan and should be replaced by light tanks. This is also an overly biased argument, because the island of Taiwan is large enough to accommodate mountains, hills and plains. Regarding it solely from the "island terrain", the size of the western plains is enough to carry out a certain degree of tank combat. The protection capability of light tanks is weak (the biggest problem), and continuous firepower is relatively poor. As long as the main tank’s resident base is close to the place where it can be landed on a large scale, the mobility problems are actually within the controllable range.

The protection capabilities and mobility of the Chinese Army’s M48H and M60A3 definitely need to be strengthened, especially the protection capabilities are the most urgent. If the funds are sufficient, it is of course better to install a new generation of combat vehicles, such as the United States - M1A2 or second-hand M1A1. However, due to the long-term shortage of Taiwan's defense budget, the main resources of the army in the second half of the 2000s were concentrated on the CM32 Clouded Leopard armored vehicle and attack/universal helicopter conversion. It is difficult to update the main combat vehicle force in the short term. However, the most difficult problem of the armored forces of the national army at this stage is probably due to many difficult, such as insufficient funding, institutional corruption, and interruption of parts sources, resulting in the unsustainable logistics of the main vehicle types such as CM11/12 and M60A3.

The accuracy rate is extremely poor. For example, the observation/fire control equipment is incomplete due to the suspension of imported parts, improper operation and maintenance, etc., so that many of the main combat vehicles of the national army have long lost the ability to shoot while on the move. Some tanks and even all fire control units have been reported as ineffective, and can only be engaged with the main gun coaxial tubular sight. It is self-evident how little power it can have. In the main tanks, the CM11 is an assembled vehicle because of the integration of the vehicle body. The self-integrated fire control equipment is more sophisticated and faces material outages, and its proper status is worse than that of the M60A3. On the other hand, the M60A3 has a complete design and the United States still has stock materials available, so its performance is much more active. To eradicate these problems, unless starting with the logistics system itself and the military atmosphere. Even if installing a new tank, it is difficult to guarantee to not repeat the mistakes of decline, but this seems to be very far away at the moment.