Rwanda - Belgian Colony
Some senior German officials viewed the Great War as the opportunity to create a great German empire in central Africa by linking the territories of German East Africa to both the Cameroons and South West Africa. Such high ambitions proved illusory, however, for the German forces in East Africa were far inferior to those of her enemies, particularly in the territories of Rwanda-Burundi.
Belgian strength in the area was placed at 7,700 troops, 52 pieces of artillery, and 52 machineguns. In January 1916 German military forces were cited at a total of 1,407 African troops, 166 Germans, 3 cannon, and 12 machineguns in the entire territory of Rwanda-Burundi. In April one-third of this force was withdrawn, so that there was only token German resistance to Belgian occupation of Rwanda-Burundi. German forces were withdrawn from Rwanda-Burundi without a major battle with the advancing Belgian troops. By May 21, 1916, the area was under Belgian control.
Belgian plans for the conquered territories involved their use as a pawn in postwar negotiations. Belgium's hopes were for a three-way exchange: Belgium would cede Rwanda-Burundi to Great Britain; the British would cede a portion of German East Africa to Portugal; and the Portuguese would cede the southern bank of the lower Congo River to be joined to the Congo colony. Belgium's first task, however, was to have its claims to the possession of the conquered territories recognized by the four-power allied council, which consisted of the United States, Great Britain, France, and Italy.
The negotiations were long, and the Portuguese were not amenable to the proposed exchange but, on August 7, 1919, the Council of Four finally recognized Belgium's claims to Rwanda- Burundi. The United States was more hesitant in approving the claims than were the other three members of the council, withholding its vote for 2 weeks. On August 23, 1923, with the decision of the Council of Four and subsequent approval by the League of Nations, Rwanda-Burundi became a mandated territory of the League under the supervision of Belgium. Under the Mandate the responsibilities of the Belgian Government were to maintain peace, order, and good administration; to work toward the emancipation of all slaves; to protect the African population from fraud, arms traffic, and the sale of alco- holic beverages; and to promote both social progress and moral well-being. In 1924 the Belgian Parliament formally accepted responsibility for Rwanda-Burundi under the conditions established by the League.
Belgium's administration of the territories followed a pattern similar to that employed by Germany. Confronted with a multitude of problems such as famine, endemic diseases, difficulties of communication, and a scattered population, the Belgians decided to use the political system of the Tutsi aristocracy who still dominated the political-social-economic structure. The colonial administration turned to the existing Tutsi organization in order to be able to concentrate administrative personnel on the more pressing social and economic problems.
The Belgians concluded, however, that, although it was expedient to respect and utilize the traditional political organization, the abuses of the system would have to be eliminated. As early as 1917 the occupying Belgian military forces had placed limits on the arbitrary power of the Mwami and, in order to fulfill the requirements of the League's Mandate, other changes also became necessary.
In 1923 the Administration issued the first of a series of ordinances greatly modifying the system of ubuhake and eliminating the payment of tribute to anyone other than the Mwami. In 1926 a number of changes were made in the administrative structure, and the three offices of land chief, cattle chief, and army chief were replaced by a single authority.
Mwami Musinga proved an obstacle to Belgian development plans; thus, the administration deposed him in 1931, sending him into exile in the Congo, where he remained until his death in 1940. Ignoring tradition, the Belgians bypassed the biru in the selection of the new Mwami, naming the 18-year-old son of Musinga, Charles Mutara III Rudahigwa, as the new monarch.
Although the terms of the Mandate required that Rwanda- Burundi be maintained as a separate and distinct territory, the League permitted Belgium to administer it as a part of the Congo colony. A law joining Rwanda-Burundi in an administrative union with the Congo was passed by the Belgian Parliament in August 1925. A separate budget was maintained for each colony, but the administrations, customs, and monetary systems were combined into one.
The major colonial policy decisions were made in Brussels in the Ministry of Colonies. The chain of command then passed to the Governor General in Leopoldville and on to the Vice Governor General in Usumbura (Bujumbura), the administrative center for Rwanda-Burundi. Kigali was subordinate to Usumbura in the administrative system, and Rwanda was considered, both in administration and in development, an appendage to Burundi. Many in Brussels considered the territory of Rwanda-Burundi merely another province of the Belgian Congo.
Efforts to make Rwanda-Burundi economically self-sufficient were concentrated on the development of agriculture. After a severe famine in 1928-29 necessitated a large-scale emergency relief program, the Administration tried to ensure the production of a food surplus in good harvest years and to encourage the production of cash crops. The cultivation of coffee as a cash crop, initiated during the German Administration was developed more fully. For the most part, the production of coffee was a European-guided enterprise, with the African farmers being assigned production quotas.
Government educational policy during the early years of this period concentrated on training the sons of Tutsi chiefs and sub-chiefs. The intent was to enable them to fill positions in the administration and the civil service. For the remainder of the population, emphasis was placed on mass primary education and was carried out mainly through subsidizing the Catholic mission schools. A 1930 report indicated a total of slightly more than 44,000 primary school students attending 552 schools.
During the period of the Mandate, Belgian policy was focused on goals of gradual social and economic progress. In giving emphasis to these ends, the administration declared that ". . . the Government should endeavor to maintain and consolidate traditional cadre composed of the Tutsi ruling class, because of its important qualities, its undeniable intellectual superiority and its ruling potential. However, the mentality of this class must gradually 14alter. A way must be sought gradually to modify its conception of authority, which must be changed from one of domination exercised solely for the benefit of its holders, to one of a more humane power to be exercised in the interests of the people."
With the formation of the UN, Rwanda-Burundi was made a Trust Territory, and the period of the Mandate was ended. On December 3, 1946, the General Assembly approved the Trus- teeship Agreement and made Rwanda-Burundi the charge of Belgium. The Belgian Parliament did not ratify the Trusteeship Agreement until April 1949.
The UN was more explicit than the League in delineating the responsibilities of the Administering Authority. A significant addition to the Trusteeship Agreement, which was not found in the Mandate, involved the political development of the inhabitants. The agreement stated that Belgium was to ". . . promote the development of free political institutions suited to Rwanda-Burundi. To this end the Administrating Authority shall assure to the inhabitants of Rwanda-Burundi an increasing share in the administration and services ... of the territory; it shall further such participation of the inhabitants in the representative organs of the people as may be appropriate to the particular conditions of the Territory . . . the Administering Authority shall take all measures conducive to the political advancement of the people of Rwanda-Burundi in accordance with Article 76 (b) of the Charter of the United Nations."
The UN's Trusteeship Council sent a number of Visiting Missions to the Trust Territory to review and report on the implementation of the agreement. The first mission visited Rwanda-Burundi in 1948, a second in 1951, and others followed at 3-year intervals. In essence, the views of the first two missions were that social and political advances were proceeding at too slow a pace. They further insisted that the administrative union with the Congo should not be allowed to impede the political develop- ment of Rwanda-Burundi.
In response to the conclusions of the 1948 and 1951 Visiting Missions, Belgium implemented a series of reforms in the economic structure, in education, and in the administrative organization. In 1952 proposals for economic and social development were embodied in the Ten-Year Development Plan. In the field of education, important curriculum changes were made in which studies based on African languages and culture were replaced by a program very similar to that practiced in Belgium. The proposed political reforms involved some significant changes in the organization of indigenous political structures and instituted a limited degree of representative government.
The Ten-Year Development Plan was based on extensive research and analysis of the existing situation with regard to natural resources, population pressures, labor, economic develop- ment, health, education, and projects of the infrastructure. It was considered necessary to concentrate first on these areas of economic and social advancement before it would be possible to bring about significant political progress.
Although it was the Administration's intention to give precedence to social and economic development, the Decree of July 14, 1952, represented an attempt to broaden participation in Government. By the law of 1943 a limited system of councils had been established to advise the Mwami and the great chiefs in matters of budget and taxation. The 1952 Decree broadened the functions of these councils and allowed for some degree of elected representation. Through a complicated system, part of the membership of each council was chosen by the members of the council below it.
At the bottom of the scale each subchief compiled a list of notables, ". . . taking into account the preferences of the inhabitants." Those named on this list then elected, from among their own number, five to nine members of the "Sub-Chiefdom Advisory Councils." The next higher level was the "Chiefdom Council," composed of the presiding chief; five to nine subchiefs, chosen by their peers; and an equal number of notables, elected by their peers from the membership of the Sub-Chiefdom Councils. This process was repeated again at the level of the Territorial Council, with the notables elected from among members of the Chiefdom Councils. The High Council of State, presided over by the Mwami, was made up of appointed members and notables elected by and from the membership of the Territorial Councils. The implementation of this system in 1953 resulted in the preponderance of Tutsi representation on the councils of Rwanda-Burundi.
While the 1954 Visiting Mission was in Rwanda-Burundi, the High Council of Rwanda decided upon the gradual suppression of ubuhake. In implementing this decision over the next 4 years, a series of acts brought about the redistribution of ownership of some 200,000 head of cattle. Although the Administration looked upon this as a sign of progress, the Hutu leadership maintained that giving over cattle to the Hutu peasants did little good because the control of the pasturelands was left in the hands of Tutsi lords.The abolition of ubuhake, however, had an important psychological impact on the Hutu, who believed that, if the Tutsi control of cattle could be broken, so could the Tutsi control of the land.
A further change in the system of electing members of the advisory councils was made in 1956 when the governor of Rwanda-Burundi decided to interpret the Decree of 1952 to allow the notables of the subchiefdom electoral colleges to be chosen by secret ballot of all adult males. This resulted in some Hutu gains on the lower councils. The gains were made mainly in the northern districts of Ruhengeri and Gisenyi, regions which the Mwami's Government had never been able to control fully without direct German or Belgian aid. A number of Hutu electors, however, whether for reasons of tradition or as a result of intimidation, voted for Tutsi so that Tutsi losses on the lower councils were offset by gains on the High Council of State.
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