Ottoman Officers - 1877
The Turkish army was superlatively good as regards the men, but not so as regards officers. The Turk may safely be said to be the finest material for a soldier that is to be found in any part of the world. He is strong, hardy, patient, brave, intelligent, obedient, and sober, and becomes easily attached to his officers. It is the fashion to say that the Turk fights bravely behind ramparts, but will not stand in the open field. This is a most erroneous idea, and a want of appreciation of cause and effect. The reason that the Turk fights so well behind a rampart consists in his being then in a position, which is independent of the ignorance and faults of his officers. He is thus able to develop his natural bravery, and being, comparatively speaking, his own master, he fights to the death. In the open field the fact of his sometimes running away is caused by the faults of his officers. No troops in the world will stand in the open field, unless they have confidence in their officers.
Regarding the pluck and bravery of the Turkish officers, they were in this respect perhaps second to none in the world. In this respect fatalism had its advantages. More particularly when their hearts were in the cause, they showed themselves almost reckless as to consequences. But of their competency it was impossible to say more than Mark Twain did of Brigham Young's piety, "If you ask me concerning his godliness," he said of the Mormon chief, "I must treat it as a conundrum, and give it up." Among the colonels, lieutenant-colonels, and majors were often to be found men of fair education and good military attainments. But in the lower ranks, among the captains and lieutenants, anything above mediocrity was rare indeed.
The great injustice with which they are treated as regards their pay - their being kept months and months in arrears, and obliged to borrow money at something like one hundred and twenty per cent. per annum for their daily wants - had much to do with this. When a man is hopelessly in debt, and cannot see his way towards bettering his condition in any way, it is difficult for him to pay much attention to the current work of his calling; and still less to improve himself in his profession. If the average Turkish officer had any rule of faith and practice, it was that "enough for the day is the evil thereof," and that the morrow must care for itself.
The field officers of regiments were generally, or at least very often, men who had received some military education at the college in Constantinople; had learnt French ; perhaps a little English; and, after a few years' service in the War-office, or on the staff of some pasha, had been promoted direct to their present position without passing through the inferior commissioned ranks.
But the captains and subalterns are of quite a different class. They seemed rarely, if ever, to advance beyond their present rank. The subalterns were generally young men, very poor, and did much of the hard work which in British service fell to the sergeants or sergeant-majors. The captains were older. Like the subalterns, their education was of a very moderate kind. They, too, were poor, and had generally a wife to support. Off parade they had little or nothing to do; for the men either did not require looking after in barracks, or, at any rate, they were not cared for save when they were under arms.
Occasionally - but much less often of late years than formerly - a European was met with among the officers of a Turkish regiment; but they were seldom much credit to the country whence they came. As a rule, they were either Hungarians or Italians, with now and then a stray Frenchman; and were generally men who had been mixed up with some more or less disreputable revolution or military mutiny, in their own land, or army. Formerly, the Turkish authorities were very easily imposed upon by any foreign adventurer who offered himself; and if he would only - without going through any religious ceremony, or without the form of going to prayers at the Mosque - declare himself to be a Moslem, he was sure to obtain military rank, even if ho had never served before, or did not know his right hand from his left. He had only to say that he had been in some high position in the army of some other country, to be made the most of by the Turks.
But this all changed. No more rebels or revolutionists were taken on the strength of the Ottoman army. In fact, no foreigner's application to join the service was so much as entertained, unless strongly supported by the ambassador at Constantinople of the country whence he hailed; and even then it was extremely difficult for the stranger to enter the army at all, unless he was content to begin at the lowest rank, on the pay of about three shillings and sixpence a day, paid at uncertain intervals. And, in this respect, the Turkish government had certainly shown its wisdom. No doubt there had been - and, perhaps, there were still a few-foreigners who had done good service to the state. The late Hungarian General Kmety - Hassein Pasha, as he was called by his Moslem masters - was one of these ; but he joined the Turkish army as a "Liva," or pasha commanding a brigade. Colonel O'Reilly, Hassein Bey, was another; but he took service from the commencement as a lieutenant-colonel, on the staff of the army. But these are exceptions to the rule; and by far the greater number of foreigners who had entered the Turkish army - of course, not a word can be said against the English and Anglo-Indian officers who joined the service during the Crimean war - turned out to be mere adventurers of the very worst type.
There were several excellent military schools, both of an advanced and of a preparatory nature. At the head of these may be mentioned The College of Artillery and Engineering at Coumber-Khauch, in the "sweet waters" at Constantinople. This college was divided into four sections, of twenty-five students in each. The course of study extended over four years, and the whole organization was remarkably good. The students had the rank of SubLieutenants, and received pay at the rate of 180 piasters per month.
The Imperial Military College, at Pancaldi, was founded by Sultan Mahmoud II. The instruction at this college was excellent, but it began at the wrong end, and turns out Captains instead of Sub-Lieutenants. The course of studies extended over five years, when the students were drafted into the army with the rank of captain, and thus lose the practical experience of subalterns, which is of so much value in guiding the interior economy of a regiment. The college was commanded by a general of brigade, and in 1873 it turned out 103 students as captains. The supply of the students was drawn from the Military Preparatory Schools, which are eight in number- one at Constantinople, and at Adrianople, Monastir, Bosna-Seraii, Broussa, Erzeroum, Damascus, and Bagdad. The course of instruction extended over four years, and the students are drafted at the age of sixteen into the Imperial Military College. The instruction consisted of the Turkish, Arabic, and French languages, history, and geography, mathematics and astronomy. Each school has six professors, and from 80 to 100 students, with the exception of the one at Constantinople, which had 400 students, and a proportionate number of professors. The Constantinople school was commanded by a general of brigade, and the other schools by colonels.
The preparatory schools, or idadyeh, are supplied with students from elementary schools, or ruchdiyeh, which were established in 1875. They were only eight in number, and were all at Constantinople. They were organized on the model of the idadyeh, and taught languages, calligraphy, drawing, mathematics, and geography. The students could enter the preparatory from the elementary schools (by examination) for either the army, navy, or the military medical services; and they are also prepared as clerks for the civil service.
The Military College of Medicine, or Thibbiyeh, situated at Constantinople, for the education of surgeons. In 1873 this college turned out thirty-three surgeons for the army, and in later years the course of studies was much improved. With the exception of the elementary schools at Ghul-khaneh and Selamsig, only Mussulman students were supposed to be admitted, but some exceptions were made in favor of Christians.
Like many other Turkish institutions the organization of these military colleges was excellent, but the results were small. The means of education are there, but the students are not made to profit by them; but it is a great point gained that the path is all clear for reform in this quarter, and the organization ready to hand. The higher grades of officers, such as generals and the staff, are all appointed by favoritism, and without any regard to their military abilities, so that the standard of education of the officers of the Turkish army was at a low level.
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