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Bombers of the Great War

It is uncertain exactly by whom or when explosive devices were first dropped from airplanes. Certainly, however, the concept of the bomber aircraft predated the rise of fighter aircraft by several years. Before the outbreak of World War I in 1914, the French, Germans, Russians, and Austro-Hungarians were developing aircraft specifically designed to carry and release bombs on a target. Great Britain also experimented with the possibility of dropping bombs from aircraft before the war but did not start building aircraft specifically for the task until after the beginning of hostilities. In addition, the Central Powers built a fearsome bombing force around Zeppelin airships before 1914 and used them extensively early in the war. Combatants used virtually all types of aircraft, including observation and fighter planes, for bombing operations at some time during the war.

In France, located comparatively near to the fighting line, the whole civilian population from Paris to the East found itself open to demoralizing attacks by constantly increasing numbers of powerful aircraft. A similar position was that of the British Islands, especially as regards the London area. It was soon realized that, unless immediate and effective measures were taken to counteract these attacks from the air, the people would soon begin to feel that the enemy had such strength that it was useless to attempt to continue the war to a successful conclusion.

Bombing brought to being a number of crude devices in the first year of the War. Allied pilots of the very early days carried up bombs packed in a small box and threw them over by hand, while, a little later, the bombs were strung like apples on wings and undercarriage, so that the pilot who did not get rid of his load before landing risked an explosion. Then came a properly designed carrying apparatus, crude but fairly efficient, and with 1916 development had proceeded as far as the proper bomb-racks with releasing gear.

High-explosive aerial bombs were first dropped from German Zeppelins during the 31 May 1915 raid on London. The Germans continued to use these dirigibles, practically unopposed, in their air raids on London and Paris until late in 1916. Then the British and French began to counter these attacks with anti-aircraft gunfire and fighter aircraft. Soon the Germans began using their large Gotha bombers, which they employed throughout 1917 and 1918. In retaliation, the Allies began producing fleets of larger bombers and various high-explosive bombs.

Incendiary bombs were also first used during the German Zeppelin raid over London on 31 May 1915, when one dirigible dropped 90 incendiary bombs. The early incendiaries used by the Germans in their air raids over London and Paris were made from a mixture containing manganese dioxide and magnesium. Later, the French used sulfur-bound thermite, a mixture of iron oxide and powdered aluminum, in an incendiary drop bomb. The British were the first to develop incendiary bomb clusters, which could release either 144 or 272 bomblets. A De Haviland bomber could dispense up to 860 of these 6.5 oz incendiary bomblets, and a Handley-Page V bomber could dispense up to 16,000. By flying in formation, these bombers could cover a large area with a blanket of burning incendiary materials.

Two classes of bombers were employed — day bombers and night bombers. Typical aeroplanes of the day bomber type are the DeHaviland-9 (British), with 300-hp. Fiat engine; the S.I.A. 7-B (Italian), with 200-hp. Fiat engine; the S.I.A. 9-B (Italian), with 500 hp. Fiat engine; and the Breguet 14-B2 (French), with 300-hp. Renault engine. The German Gotha twin-engine machine (two 200-hp. Mercedes engines), while rather too slow and too unhandy for the purpose, saw some service bombing by day over London. Typical aeroplanes of the night bomber type are the Caproni triplane (Italian) with three 273-hp. IsottaFraschinl engines; the Handley-Palge (British) with 320-hp. Sunbeam engines, and the Caproni biplane with three 210-hp. S.P.A. engines. The German Gotha, with two 260-hp. Mercedes engines, was typical.

Material damage must be done at night. Day bombers will be used solely for the moral effect of inflicting perpetual unrest except in a few special cases when vulnerable objectives are difficult to locate at night.

The primary military functions of the day bomber were:

• To bomb important points, such as small objects difficult to find by night, headquarters, small ammunition "dumps," small storehouses containing munitions or supplies, small railway junctions, and small aerodromes.
• To bomb such communities as is considered desirable, especially factories and factory towns.
• To conduct long-range reconnaissance, strategical reconnaissance, reconnaissance by staff officers, or with camera,
• To do special photographic work so far beyond the lines as to necessitate great altitude, demanding a camera of great focal length and therefore great size and weight.

The primary requirements for this aeroplane in order that it can effectively perform its military functions were:

• Ability to protect itself effectively against all hostile aircraft, which demands good speed at altitude, strong climbing ability, powerful and reliable armament, and a satisfactory degree of "handiness."
• Reliable powerplant.
• Powerplant with good fuel efficiency.
• Capacity for as many bombs as will not prohibit satisfactory provisions for protecting itself against enemy aircraft as discussed above. I believe that, at the present time, it is not an economic proposition to send a trained pilot and a trained "bombardier" a great distance beyond the enemy's line unless at least 600 pounds of bombs are carried.
• Effective provision for accurate sighting of and dropping bombs.
• Ceiling should be high enough so that the machine stands a good chance of escaping detection as it crosses the line.
• Muffler for the exhaust capable of being cut in and off at the will of the pilot.
• Two or three machine guns, one firing through the propeller disk and one or two with all-around fire, with good field to the rear.
• Provision to carry two men.
• Reliable Compass.

The type designed for bombing by night must be depended on to inflict real material damage upon the enemy. Proponents claimed that the consistent employment of these machines in large numbers on every good moonlight night to bomb Germany's munition factories, factory towns, important railway junctions, large munition depots, the bridges across the Rhine, the Kiel Canal, Important docks, submarine bases, and certain cities, would end the war in a shorter period of time than was possible by any other means. The primary requirements for these machines in order that they can effectively perform their functions were:

• Great bomb capacity.
• Reliable powerplant.
• Powerplant with good fuel efficiency.
• Proper degree of stability and controllability to permit a pilot of ordinary ability, and a limited amount of training to fly and land at night.
• Effective provision for~accurate sighting for, and dropping of bombs.
• Accurate compass and other instruments necessary for navigation by night, with provision for reading conveniently at night.
• Provision for carrying two to five men. Probably the best practice was a crew of three: a chief pilot, a "bombardier," and one man to man a gun forward or to the rear, as may be necessary, and to act as relief pilot.

Bombing by night was much more successful than day raiding. The day bomber had some advantages, no doubt. The route is clearly indicated and his objective is easily seen, but from the moment that it approached the frontier the day bomber was constantly exposed to attacks from defending aircraft, which had much greater ability to maneuver and which may be nearly half again as fast. The heavy bomber was necessarily limited to a low ceiling so that it was always within range of anti-aircraft guns and if it approaches too close to the ground is sure to be attacked by machine guns and even rifle fire. The farther it penetrates into the opposing country, the greater is apt to be the superiority in numbers.

The night bomber also found many restrictions, especially the difficulty in finding the way towards the objective and in accurately locating it when once near the proper area. Night landings were more difficult and dangerous than those by day, but night landing for the slow flying, heavy bombers was comparatively simple when compared to the difficulty of landing the fast pursuit planes which must combat them. The night bomber had the great advantage of being hidden in darkness, so that, unless it was artificially illuminated, defending airplanes or anti-aircraft artillery have but a slim chance indeed of bringing down their target. In addition, night bombing had a greater demoralizing effect even among seasoned troops and this was still more apparent among civilians, particularly women and young children.

Night bombers must follow certain clearly defined features of the ground. These may be classed in importance as follows: Large rivers and river valleys, edges of great forests, coast lines, railroad tracks when there are trains moving over them, canals, clearly denned highways and railroads. In order not to be lost, the planes must then follow such a route as indicated above and consequently defenses are planned to obstruct these routes. Searchlights suitably supported by carefully located night pursuit squadrons or anti-aircraft guns must be placed in bands along the entire front especially guarding, by additional depth of the lighted area, the prominent routes to the important objectives in the rear.

Sound locators would be employed to give close indication of the direction of the approaching bomber and to limit the field of search by the searchlight beams. The emplacements must be within supporting distance of adjacent lights and must be on high ground with the best field of view in all directions and well above ground mists. Searchlight positions were from one to three miles apart depending upon various conditions and are placed in staggered order. Their primary use is to illuminate hostile planes for attack. They are so located that at least three beams can be brought on any target over the area, which makes an illuminated area most difficult for a heavy, slow flying, low flying bomber to escape from. In addition, they dazzle and mislead hostile aviators and, by contrast, hide objectives. By skillful location, they may be used to create effective camouflage of real objectives. The psychological effect upon an aviator when illuminated may easily be imagined. Far from his own airdrome, flying at night, necessarily at a comparatively low altitude, in a slow machine most difficult to maneuver quickly and more or less unprotected in the rear, he realizes that he forms a huge target, especially to attacks by fast flying, easily maneuvered pursuit planes. When illuminated, he can see nothing and yet knows that he is immediately open to attack by planes, anti-aircraft artillery and machine guns. His only idea is to get out of the searchlight beams into the friendly darkness again. He is dazzled and becomes confused in his route, frequently losing his way in his efforts to escape.

He may attempt to fly high at the risk of losing his way, but he cannot go above a certain level which is within the range of illumination and within easy range for attack. The higher he flies, the more difficult he finds it to follow his routes of approach and to locate his objective and the greater is his inaccuracy in dropping aerial torpedoes on the desired spot. If he attempts to circle around the lighted area, he must travel a great distance, with a correspondingly greater chance of becoming lost, of being attacked, or of meeting some accident which forces him to land in hostile territory.

Air defense was a problem which required much future thought and was a subject of absorbing interest. In future wars, it was believed that searchlights would find their principal use in combating airplanes. Bombing attacks must be expected on a still greater scale, employing larger and larger planes, carrying projectiles containing thousands of pounds of explosives. There was reason to believe that fast pursuit planes will work in conjunction with the bombers so as to fight off attacks by friendly planes and to attack and confuse air defenses such as searchlights. It should be borne in mind that materiel objectives for aircraft were usually large, impossible to move, and difficult to conceal.