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Military


GENERALS OF THE CONFEDERATE ARMY

GENERALS

    1. Samuel Cooper, Virginia,
    adjutant general.
    2. Albert S. Johnston, Texas,
    commanding in Kentucky.
    3. Joseph E. Johnston, Virginia,
    commanding Northern Virginia.
    4. Robert E. Lee, Virginia,
    commanding South Atlantic coast.
    5. P.G.T. Beauregard, Louisiana,
    commanding Army of Potomac.
    6. Braxton Bragg, Louisiana,
    commanding at Pensacola.

LIEUTENANT-GENERALS

  1. Ewell, Richard S., Virginia, Army of Potomac.
  2. Holmes, Theophilus II., North Carolina, Army of Potomac.
  3. Jackson, Thomas J., Virginia, commanding Northwestern Virginia.
  4. Longstreet, James, Alabama, Army of Potomac.
  5. Polk, Leonidas, Louisiana, commanding at Memphis.
  6. Smith, Edmund Kirby, Florida, Army of Potomac.
  7. Van Dorn, Earl, Mississippi, Army of Potomac.

MAJOR-GENERALS

  1. Anderson, Joseph R., Virginia, coast of North Carolina.
  2. Anderson, Richard H., South Carolina, Pensacola.
  3. Anderson, Samuel R., Tennessee, Kentucky.
  4. Bee, Bernard E., South Carolina, killed in action.
  5. Blanchard, Albert G., Louisiana, Norfolk.
  6. Bonham, Milledge L., South Carolina, Army of Potomac.
  7. Branch, L. O'Brien, North Carolina, coast of North Carolina.
  8. Breckinridge, John C., Kentucky, Kentucky.
  9. Buckner, Simon B., Kentucky, Kentucky.
  10. Carroll, William H., Tennessee, East Tennessee.
  11. Catlin, Richard C., North Carolina, coast of North Carolina.
  12. Cheatham, Benj. F., Tennessee, Kentucky.
  13. Clark, Charles, Mississippi, Army of Potomac.
  14. Cocke, Philip St. George, Virginia, died in Virginia.
  15. Crittenden, George B., Kentucky, commanding East Tennessee.
  16. Donelson, Daniel S., Tennessee, coast of South Carolina.
  17. Drayton, Thomas F., South Carolina, coast of South Carolina.
  18. Early, Jubal A., Virginia, Army of Potomac.
  19. Elzey, Arnold, Maryland, Army of Potomac.
  20. Evans, Nathan G., South Carolina, coast of South Carolina.
  21. Fanntleroy, Thomas T., Virginia, resigned.
  22. Flournoy, Thomas B., Arkansas, died in Arkansas.
  23. Floyd, John B., Virginia, commanding Army of Kanawha.
  24. French, Samuel G., Mississippi, Army of Potomac.
  25. Gardner, William Montgomery, Georgia, on furlough.
  26. Garnett, Richard B., Virginia, Army of Potomac.
  27. Garnett, Robert S., Virginia, killed in action.
  28. Gladden, Adley H., Louisiana, Pensacola.
  29. Grayson, John B., Kentucky, died in Florida.
  30. Gregg, Maxey, South Carolina, coast of South Carolina.
  31. Griffin, Richard, Mississippi, Army of Potomac.
  32. Hardee, William J., Georgia, Missouri.
  33. Hebert, Paul O., Louisiana, coast of Texas.
  34. Hill, Daniel H., North Carolina, Army of Potomac.
  35. Hill, William H. T., Georgia, resigned.
  36. Hindman, Thomas C., Arkansas, Kentucky.
  37. Huger, Benjamin, South Carolina, commanding at Norfolk.
  38. Jackson, Henry R., Georgia, resigned.
  39. Jones, David R., South Carolina, Army of Potomac.
  40. Jones, Samuel, Virginia, Army of Potomac.
  41. Lawton, Alexander R., Georgia, coast of Georgia.
  42. Loring, William H., North Carolina, Western Virginia.
  43. Lovell, Mansfield, Virginia, commanding coast of Louisiana.
  44. Magruder, John B., Virginia, commanding at Yorktown.
  45. Mahone, William, Virginia, Norfolk.
  46. Marshall, Humphrey, Kentucky, Kentucky.
  47. McCown, John Porter, Tennessee, Kentucky.
  48. McCulloch, Ben, Texas, Missouri.
  49. McLaws, Lafayette, Georgia, Yorktown.
  50. Mercer, Hugh W., Georgia, .
  51. Pemberton, John C., Virginia, coast of South Carolina.
  52. Pike, Albert, Arkansas, Indian Commissioner.
  53. Pillow, Gideon J., Tennessee, Kentucky.
  54. Rains, Gabriel S., North Carolina, Yorktown.
  55. Rhodes, R. F., Alabama, Army of Potomac.
  56. Ripley, Roswell S., South Carolina, coast of South Carolina.
  57. Ruggles, Daniel, Virginia, Louisiana.
  58. Sigley, Henry H., Louisiana, Texas frontier.
  59. Smith, Gustavus W., Kentucky, Army of Potomac.
  60. Stewart, Alexander P., Kentucky, Kentucky.
  61. Stuart, J. E. B., Virginia, Army of Potomac.
  62. Taylor, Richard, Louisiana, Army of Potomac.
  63. Tighlman, Lloyd, Kentucky, Kentucky.
  64. Toombs, Robert, Georgia, Army of Potomac.
  65. Trapier, James H., South Carolina, coast of Florida.
  66. Trimble, Isaac E., Maryland, Army of Potomac.
  67. Twiggs, David E., Georgia, resigned.
  68. Walker, Leroy Pope, Alabama, Alabama.
  69. Whiting, William H. C., Georgia, Army of Potomac.
  70. Wigfall, Louis T., Texas, Army of Potomac.
  71. Wilcox, Cadmus M., Tennessee, Army of Potomac.
  72. Winder, John H., Maryland, Richmond.
  73. Wise, Henry A., Virginia, waiting orders.
  74. Withers, Jones M., Alabama, commanding coast of Alabama.
  75. Zollicoffer, Felix K., Tennessee, Eastern Kentucky.

BRIGADIER-GENERALS

There were at least 383 Confederate Brigadier Generals in the volunteer army, and three in the regular army, for a total of at least 386 different men who held this rank. These generals primarily commanded brigades, though some also served as aides or in the War Department. In total, approximately 425 men held general officer rank (including brigadier, major, lieutenant, and full general) in the Confederate Army throughout the war. Some sources mention up to 401 actual, substantive Confederate generals across all ranks when accounting for various historical criteria.

The American writer Albert Pike once wrote, "What we have done for ourselves alone, dies with us; what we have done for others and the world, remains and is immortal." Brigadier General Albert Pike, the namesake of Camp Pike was the KKK’s Chief Judicial Officer and Head of the Arkansas chapter.
  • Albert Pike and Lucifer
    • Albert Pike was hailed as the one who "found Masonry in a log cabin and left it in a temple." Albert Pike was a man history stepped over, though largely self-educated, a man of learning and culture. There was no man in the world of so many sides to his character, and so plain withal. He became rich and celebrated. Quarrelling with Jefferson Davis soon after the rebellion began, he withdrew from the contest, and at the close was poor. Albert Pike was a lawyer who played a major role in the development of the early courts of Arkansas and played an active role in the state’s politics prior to the Civil War. He also was a central figure in the development of Masonry in the state and later became a national leader of that organization. During the Civil War, he commanded the Confederacy’s Indian Territory, raising troops there and exercising field command in one battle. He also was a talented poet and writer. Albert Pike [NME] was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on December 29, 1809. His colonial ancestors had settled in the area in 1635, and included John Pike (1613–1688/1689), the founder of Woodbridge, New Jersey. Albert's descent from his immigrant ancestor John Pike is as follows: John Pike (1572–1654); John Pike (1613–1688/89); Joseph Pike (1638–1694); Thomas Pike (1682–1753/4); John Pike (1710–1755); Thomas Pike (1739–1836); Benjamin Pike (1780–?); Albert Pike (1809–1891). He was one of the six children of Benjamin Pike, a cobbler, and Sarah Andrews. His father was a man of humble calling, a shoemaker, but a member of an honored family. Nicholas Pike, one of his father's ancestors, was a friend of Washington and the author of the first arithmetic published in America, while another relative, General Zebulon Pike, explored the Rocky Mountains and gave his name to Pike's Peak. He attended public schools in Byfield, Newburyport, and Framingham, Massachusetts. He received an education that provided him with a background in classical and contemporary literature and in Hebrew, Latin, and Greek. Although he passed the examinations for admission to Harvard College when he was sixteen, he was unable to enter because in those days the requirement was that two years' tuition be paid in advance or secured by bond. He was unable to pay the tuition at Harvard, however, and began to teach, working at schools in Newburyport and nearby Gloucester and Fairhaven. This being too arduous, he gave up the attempt and devoted himself to teaching, while studying hard at the same time, so that by the time he was ready for his junior year he was able to pass off his back examinations with credit. This did not satisfy Harvard College. It seems that in those days at Harvard a college education had some mysterious connection with the correct number of receipts from the bursar's office. And while Pike had passed his back examinations, he was not to be allowed to enter Harvard until he had paid his back tuition fees for instruction which he had not received. The folly of this procedure so incensed the young man that he shook the dust of the place off his feet and went back to his teaching and private studying. He began to write poetry as a young man, six feet two inches tall, which he continued to do for the rest of his life. When he was twenty-three, he published his first poem, “Hymns to the Gods.” Subsequent poems appeared in contemporary literary journals such as Blackwood’s Edinburgh Magazine and local newspapers. His first collection of poetry, Prose Sketches and Poems Written in the Western Country, appeared in 1834. He later gathered many of his poems and republished them in Hymns to the Gods and Other Poems (1872). After his death these appeared again in Gen. Albert Pike’s Poems (1900) and Lyrics and Love Songs (1916). At twenty-five years of age, Pike was writing his famous "Hymns to the Gods," a series of poems addressed to the Gods of Classical Mythology, unrivalled in American poetry for their beautiful imagery and stately measures. These verses appeared first in this country in the American Monthly Magazine. During the years 1830 and 1831 almost every issue of the magazine contained contributions by the young Pike, in both prose and poetry. These were no schoolboy jingles, but classic couplets in the stately tread of iambic pentameter which were filled with images of great beauty and nobility. Ten years later the poems appeared in Blackwood's Magazine, one of the leading British literary journals of the day, and Christopher North himself declared that these fine poems entitled their author to take his place in the highest order of his country's poets. To a friend and fellow-critic North is quoted as having said: "His massive genius marked him out to be the poet of the Titans." Pike left Massachusetts for Santa Fe, in what was then Mexico, in 1831, one of many at the time attracted to the developing West. From Santa Fe, he joined in an expedition into the lands around the headwaters of the Arkansas and Red rivers. Somewhere along the route, he left the expedition and walked to Fort Smith (Sebastian County). He taught there in rural schools for a short time, but his literary skills early involved him in Arkansas politics. In 1833, he published in local newspapers letters in support of Robert Crittenden’s candidacy for territorial delegate to Congress. The anonymous letters, signed “Casca” after one of the Roman politicians who assassinated Julius Caesar, were considered very persuasive and secured for him a statewide reputation as a writer. They also attracted the attention of Charles Bertrand, owner of the Whig Party’s Arkansas Advocate, who invited Pike to Little Rock (Pulaski County) to work as the paper’s editor. Pike accepted the job and moved to the capital city. While working for the Advocate, Pike published a series of stories and poems about his adventures in New Mexico, the material later published in his Prose Stories and Poems Written in the Western Country. In addition to editing the newspaper, Pike secured additional work in Little Rock as a clerk in the legislature. He married Mary Ann Hamilton on October 10, 1834. The couple had six children. Hamilton brought to the marriage considerable financial resources, and she helped Pike purchase an interest in the Advocate from Bertrand in 1834. The next year, he became its sole proprietor. Pike studied law while editing the newspaper, ultimately passing the Arkansas Bar exam in either 1836 or 1837. In the latter year, he sold the newspaper and devoted his time to the law. He demonstrated considerable legal prowess early and represented clients in courts at every level, including the United States Supreme Court, which he received permission to practice before in 1849. Pike developed a lucrative law practice, and his clients included many of the tribes in Indian Territory. Among his clients at this time were the Creek (Muscogee) and Choctaw, whom he represented in a case against the U.S. government that secured payment for lands taken in the Treaty of Fort Jackson in 1814. Pike learned several Native American dialects while working as their attorney. From 1836 to 1844, Pike was the first reporter of the Arkansas Supreme Court, charged with writing notes on the relevant points in court decisions, then publishing and indexing the court’s opinions. In 1842, he published the Arkansas Form Book, a tool for lawyers providing models for the different kinds of motions to be filed in the state’s courts. His reputation as an attorney also secured him the appointment of receiver for the failed Arkansas State Bank in 1840. As receiver, he attempted to collect the debts owed to that institution. At the same time, the fees he received for this work were lucrative and secured his fortune. Built in 1840, the house located at 411 E. Seventh Street in Little Rock, Arkansas, was originally owned by Albert Pike, a poet and Civil War general. In the 1870s the Pike family sold the house and surrounding property and it became the Arkansas Female College. Many prominent local families sent their daughters to be educated at the school and new buildings were added to accommodate the growing number of pupils. Under principal Myra C. Warner, the school continued operation until it closed in 1889. John and Adolphine Fletcher purchased the property and moved into the house with their family. One of their children, John Gould Fletcher, went on to be a Pulitzer Prize winning poet. An ambitious public figure, Pike joined others in 1845 in supporting actions against Mexico, what became the Mexican War. He helped raise the Little Rock Guards, a company incorporated into the Arkansas cavalry regiment of Colonel Archibald Yell, and served as its captain. He distinguished himself in a number of battles. Governor Yell was killed at the battle of Buena Vista, and Captain Pike wrote an account of the action which was published very generally throughout the State. Pike concluded early on that the senior officers of his regiment were incompetent, and he shared his observations with the people back in Arkansas through letters to the newspapers. Following the Battle of Buena Vista, he leveled particularly harsh criticism against Lieutenant Colonel John Selden Roane. After the publication of a particularly vitriolic letter by Pike in the Arkansas Gazette, Roane demanded that Pike apologize or “give him satisfaction.” Pike refused to apologize, and the two fought a duel in Indian Territory in August 1848. The duel took place on a sandbar in the Arkansas River near Fort Smith, which was considered part of the Cherokee Nation at the time. Two shots were exchanged, but neither was injured, and the seconds and surgeons present persuaded them to end the duel after the second round of shots. Honor was considered satisfied, and the two men shook hands and later attended a banquet in Fort Smith. The event did not negatively affect either man's career, as Roane later became the governor of Arkansas and both men served in the Civil War. Pike was involved with the Pacific railroad project, advocating for a line from New Orleans to the Pacific Coast. Returning from Mexico, he moved to New Orleans in 1853 to further his railroad activities. Writings on the topic, he authoredthe pamphlet "National plan of an Atlantic and Pacific rail road, and remarks of Albert Pike, made thereon, at Memphis, November 1849". He worked to get a charter for it from the Louisiana legislature in the 1850s. He also wrote a letter to a U.S. Congressman regarding Pacific railroads. Albert Pike wrote in December 1854, “it is everywhere seen and understood” that a railroad to the Pacific would benefit the nation's commerce and political power. In 1858, he wrote a letter titled "Remarks upon the pamphlet of "a Citizen of Arkansas"" related to the Pacific railroads. Ultimately, he successfully obtained a charter from the Louisiana legislature for one of his railroad projects, with proposed termini at San Francisco, California, and Guaymas, Mexico. Ultimately, the sectional crisis and the Civil War delayed the construction of any Pacific railroad. Following the war, the first U.S. transcontinental railroad was built along a central/northern route, as authorized by the Pacific Railroad Acts of the 1860s, while southern routes came later. Albert Pike's writing from December 1854 also contains the statement: "When office and wealth become the gods of a people, and the most unworthy and incompetent are selected to fill the most important positions... it is everywhere seen that the tendency of the people is to worship office and wealth". This quote expresses his concern about materialism and the veneration of status in society. Pike reestablished his law practice, and continued to practice law. He translated French legal volumes into English while preparing to pass the local bar exam for Louisiana. He returned to Little Rock in 1857. It seems that Pike shared with Mark Twain the distinction of a premature announcement of his own death. "The news of my death has been greatly exaggerated," cabled Mark Twain from Bermuda, when he learned of the rumor that he was dead. In 1859, by a similar blunder, Albert Pike saw the account of his own death, and with infinite merriment read numberless eulogies of his brilliant career. The death of Col. Albert James Pickett, in December 1858, led to a report of the demise of Col. Albert Pike, and the latter enjoyed the rare felicity an advance of good fortune beyond even the "happy opportunity of death" coveted by the ancients-of perusing glowing epicedian tributes to his own "departed worth." But Pike at that time was very much alive, and speedily wrote a delightful poem to be read at the wake, which was immediately planned by his then enlightened friends, and which he attended with great relish. In the next month the appearance at Washington City in life and health of the "deeply lamented" was celebrated by a social festival, the incidents of which have been duly recorded in an exquisite volume (privately printed in August, 1859) entitled The Life-Wake of the Fine Arkansas Gentleman who Died before his Time. The poem, chanted by Jack Savage, began: "A gentleman from Arkansas not long ago 'tis said, "Waked up one pleasant morning and discovered he was dead * * * " The lines proceed through thirty stanzas and as many choruses, recounting the struggles that "this fine Arkansas gentleman" had with Pluto, the King of the Nether Regions, before he was per permitted to return to earth for one more spree with his old friends at Johnny Coyle's. In the years immediately following the Mexican War, Pike’s concern with the developing sectional crisis brought on by the issue of slavery became apparent. He had long been a Whig, but the Whig Party repeatedly refused to address the slavery issue. That failure and Pike’s own anti-Catholicism led him to join the Know-Nothing Party upon its creation. In 1856, he attended the new party’s national convention, but he found it equally reluctant to adopt a strong pro-slavery platform. He joined other Southern delegates in walking out of the convention. Pike expressed a belief in states’ rights and considered secession constitutional. He philosophically supported secession, demonstrating his position in 1861 when he published a pamphlet titled State or Province, Bond or Free? Unlike commercial cities of the Northeast, New Orleans did not adapt its resources to nor invest its acquired capital in industrial activity. This was generally true of the South which relied instead on agricultural production. Residents of the region recognized this fact and became increasingly hostile to the North, partly because their dependence on imported manufactured goods relegated their economic status to that of a colony. Albert Pike, born in Boston but living and doing business in New Orleans, expressed the general sentiment of the Southern economic elite during this era before a meeting of merchants and planters in New Orleans. "From the rattle with which the nurse tickles the ear of a child born in the South to the shroud which covers the cold form of the dead, everything comes to us from the North. We rise from between sheets made in Northern looms, and pillows of Northern feathers, and wash in basins made in the North, dry our beards on Northern towels, and dress ourselves in garments made in Northern looms; we eat from Northern plates and dishes; our rooms are swept with Northern brooms; our gardens are dug with Northern spades and our bread kneaded in trays or dishes of Northern wood or tin; and the very wood which feeds our fires is cut with Northern axes, helved with hickory brought from Connecticut or New York; and when we die our bodies are wrapped in shrouds manufactured in New England, put in coffins made in the North. We have our graves filled with Southern soil but it is pulled in by Northern spades and shovels." As the United States became a divided nation, beset by a civil conflict between the Union and Confederate forces, decisions had to be made within the Indian Nations. They were located between Union Kansas and Confederate Texas, a geographical location that would obviously put them in contact with forces of both sides. Only one side in the conflict was truly interested in possession of the Indian Territory. Before the actual outbreak of hostilities, in the winter of 1860, adherents of the Southern cause, among the most effectual and influential of whom were the official agents of the United States accredited to the Indian tribes, were active in propagating the doctrines of secession among the Cherokees, as well as among other tribes of the Indian Territory. Secret societies were organized, especially among the Cherokees, and Stand Watie, the recognized leader of the old Ridge or Treaty party, was the leader of an organization of Southern predilections known as the Knights of the Golden Circle. A counter organization was formed from among the loyally inclined portion of the nation, most, if not all, of whom were members of the Government or Ross party. The membership of this latter society was composed principally of full blood Cherokees, and they termed themselves the "Ki-tu-wha," a name by which the Cherokees were said to have been known in their ancient confederations with other Indian tribes. The distinguishing badge of membership in this association was a pin worn in a certain position on the coat, vest, or hunting shirt, from whence members were given the designation in common parlance of "Pin" Indians. According to the statement of General Albert Pike, however, this “Pin" society was organized and in full operation long before the beginning of the secession difficulties, and was really established for the purpose of depriving the half-breeds of all political power. Be this as it may, however, the society was made to represent in the incipient stages of the great American conflict the element of opposition to an association with the Southern Confederacy and on one occasion it prevented the distinctively Southern element under the leadership of Stand Watie from raising a Confederate flag at Tahlequah.4 It was also alleged to have been established by the Rev. Evan Jones, a missionary of more than forty years' standing among the Cherokees, as an instrument for the dissemination of anti-slavery doctrines. The Confederate Government appointed Albert Pike as commissioner for the Indian Territory, who oversaw the creation and administration of treaties with the Indian nations on behalf of the Richmond government. The Confederate government sent Pike to meet with the Five Civilized Tribes and urge them to join the Confederacy. For years before the outbreak of the rebellion their superintendents, agents, and agency employés had been, almost without exception, Southern men or men of Southern sympathies. They were a slaveholding people, and the idea was constantly pressed upon them that the pending difficulties between the North and the South were solely the result of a determination on the part of the latter to protect her slave property from the aggressions and rapacity of the former. When at last hostilities commenced, they saw the magnitude of the preparation and the strength of the Confederate forces in their vicinity. The weakness of the Federal forces was equally striking. In May 1861, General Albert Pike, of Arkansas, was requested by Hon. Robert Toombs, secretary of state of the Confederate States, to visit the Indian Territory as a commissioner, and to assure the Indians of the friendship of those States. He proceeded to Fort Smith, where, in company with General Benjamin McCulloch, he was waited on by a delegation of Cherokees representing the element of that people who were enthusiastically loyal to the Confederacy and who were desirous of ascertaining whether in case they would organize and take up arms for the South the latter would engage to protect them from the hostility of John Ross and the association of “Pin" Indians who were controlied by him.2 Assurances were given of the desired protection, and messengers were sent to a number of the prominent leaders of the anti-Ross party to meet General Pike at the Creek Agency, two days after he should have held an interview with Ross, then contemplated, at Park Hill. General Pike had no idea of concluding any terms with Ross, and his intention was to treat with the leaders of the Southern party at the Creek Agency. At the meeting held with Ross at Park Hill, the latter refused to enter into any arrangement with the Confederate Government, and obstinately insisted on maintaining an attitude of strict neutrality. After vainly endeavoring to shake the old man's purpose, General McCulloch at length agreed to respect his neutrality so long as the Federal forces should refrain from entering the Cherokee country. General McCulloch having been ordered by the Confederate authorities to take command of the district of country embracing the Indian Territory, with headquarters at Fort Smith, addressed a communication to John Ross again assuring him of his intention to respect the neutrality of the Cherokee people, except that all those members of the tribe who should so desire must be permitted to enlist in the Confederate army, without interference or molestation, for purposes of defense in case of an invasion from the North. A meeting was held at North Fork Town in July 1861, and on the 10th a treaty of alliance and friendship was negotiated. Among the Creeks, and within some of the other tribes, certain factions remained loyal to the Union, an increasingly dangerous position to maintain. The loyal Creeks met in council August 5, declaring the Confederate treaty with Pike illegal. The majority of the Creeks, were for active co-operation with the Confederacy, and an internecine war was at once inaugurated. The loyal portion of the Seminoles, Wichitas, Kickapoos, and Delawares joined O-poth-le-yo-ho-lo and his loyal Creeks, who after two or three engagements with the disloyal Indians, backed by a force of Texas troops, was compelled to retreat to the north, which he did in December, 1861.2 The weather was extremely inclement; the loyal Indians were burdened with all their household goods, their women and children, and at the same time exposed to the assaults of their enemies. Their baggage was captured, leaving many of them without shoes or comfortable clothing. Hundreds perished on the route. Long before the conclusion of this treaty, authority was given by General McCulloch to raise a battalion of Cherokees for the service of the Confederate States. Under this authority a regiment was raised in December 1861. During that period they had remained unpaid, were scantily clothed, and were generally uncared for, unthanked, and their services unrecognized. These two regiments actively participated and co-operated in the military operations of the Confederates until after the battle of Pea Ridge, in which they were engaged. Pike was commissioned as a brigadier general in the Confederate States Army on 22 November 1861. One late addition to what came to be called the “Army of the West” was two small regiments of Indian “volunteer” infantry (1st and 2d Cherokee Mounted Rifles of about 700 men altogether) and two companies of Texas cavalry. This unsavory group was commanded by BG Albert Pike, a morbidly obese political appointee who combined poor judgment with a complete lack of qualification for his position. Other sources report a force of 5,000 Cherokee Indians under General Pike. Pike’s Cherokees were a mixed bag of adventurers, restless youth, and brigands, most of who agreed to serve only after pocketing Pike’s generous bounties. Distrusted by the Confederates and hated by the federals, their performance on and off the battlefield left much to be desired. In truth his experience was not very different from that of the British officers during the Revolution and during the War of 1812 who sought to make military use of Indian allies. In any event the project failed. Confederate forces in the northwest corner of Arkansas commanded by Brigadier General Ben McCulloch. In the Battle of Pea Ridge on 07 March 1862, McCulloch ordered Brigadier James McIntosh to disperse the Federal force to his rear. McIntosh’s Cavalry Brigade had plenty of men and horses to disperse Bussey’s small command and he sent cavalry elements as well as Native American regiments under the command of Brigadier General Albert Pike to attack the Unionists. The attack overran the small battery and sent the 3d Iowa flying southward to the Federal lines. In their only active involvement in the battle, Pike’s Cherokees swooped down on the hopelessly outnumbered Federals. Several Iowans were scalped and mutilated before the Indians were frightened away by Union artillery fire. The single incident of scalping was, however, done by a Native American acting on his own. According to official records submitted to the Headquarters Department of Indian territory, Pike "regarded [the incident] with horror" and was personally "angry and disgusted." He also filed a report in which he said it caused him the "utmost pain and regret." BG McCulloch’s command of Confederate regulars disintegrated. Some retreated west to the Confederate trains while the rest under Pike backtracked to the Bentonville Detour and followed the Confederate main body. All through the night, while Pike led the remnants of McCulloch’s division to Van Dorn, the Union leadership rearranged their defenses. They did not link up with Van Dorn until dawn of the following day. Pike proved a poor leader, and he failed to keep his force engaged with the enemy or in check. Charges circulated widely that the men had stopped their advance to take scalps. After the battle, Pike and his men returned to Indian Territory. The prestige of the Confederacy seemed, for the time being, to have become less potent in that region, their troops having been withdrawn to other localities, the discontented and unfed Cherokee soldiers found themselves in a condition ripe for revolt. Almost en masse, they abandoned the Confederate service and enlisted in that of the United States. Another day a Northern general in Little Rock, Arkansas, threw a cordon of Northern soldiers about the home of a Southern general, in order to protect it from the advance of Northern forces. That home belonged to Albert Pike. It was not out of any tender sentiment for the man himself that the home was to be saved, but because in that home was Pike's library, filled with priceless volumes on the history of Masonry. Opposition to Confederate policy over Indian Territory would continue to be a source of conflict between Pike and his superiors. Unhappy with Pike, in the summer of 1862, General Thomas C. Hindman, commander of Confederate forces in Arkansas, attempted to extend his authority over the territory. Pike responded by issuing a circular that refused to surrender control and charged Hindman with trying to replace constitutional government with despotism. Ultimately, the dispute between the two went to Confederate authorities at Richmond. The authorities decided in favor of Hindman and reprimanded Pike. On July 12, Pike resigned from his position in protest. With his resignation, Pike retired to Greasy Cove in Montgomery County. He was appointed as a judge of the state Supreme Court in 1864, but little is known of his activities on the court. At the end of the Civil War, Pike moved to New York City, then for a short time to Canada. On June 24, 1865, Pike applied to President Andrew Johnson for a pardon, disowning his earlier interpretation of the U.S. Constitution. He said he now planned "to pursue the arts of peace, to practice my profession, to live among my books, and to labour to benefit my fellows and my race by other than political courses". President Johnson pardoned him on April 23, 1866. After receiving an amnesty from President Andrew Johnson on August 30, 1865, he returned for a time to Arkansas and resumed the practice of law. In 1867, he moved to Memphis, Tennessee, and entered a new law partnership with General Charles W. Adams. He also edited the Memphis Appeal. He may have become involved in the organization of the Ku Klux Klan at this time, although this is not certain. He moved to Washington DC in 1870. There, he engaged for a time in politics, editing The Patriot, a Democratic newspaper, from 1868 to 1870. He also practiced law in partnership with Robert W. Johnson, former U.S. senator, until 1880. Although less interested in Arkansas affairs, one of his last major roles in the state would be his support to the administration of President Ulysses S. Grant of Elisha Baxter’s claims for the governorship in 1874. His home was at Alexandria, Virginia, that formerly busy seaport. The historic Greek Revival house located at 801 Duke Street is listed in Historic American Buildings Survey as a "parlor house" dating to circa 1880, but some sources place Pike at that address earlier, around 1868. The address 801 Duke Street is a historic private residence known as the Greek Revival House, built in 1840. It is a private, detached home that has been updated and expanded while maintaining its historic character. Today, the 801 Duke Street address appears in public records, primarily associated with political campaign finance reports, an auto dealer business (Don Beyer Motors), and a "Center for Constructive Change" in a commercial context, not the historical Albert Pike. But contrary to some reports it is not a historic landmark open to the public listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Other sources report there is no known historical or current association between the historic figure Albert Pike and the address 801 Duke Street in Alexandria, Virginia, based on available information. Another Albert Pike House in Alexandria, Virginia is depicted in a photograph taken by J.K.Hillers in 1929 captioned "Albert Pike House in Alexandria, Virginia." No digitized source find gives the house’s street address. The precise Alexandria street address of Pike’s residence is not easily recoverable from digitized, searchable sources. It’s probably buried in 19th-century local records that haven’t been fully indexed online. In post-Bellum Alexandria a large house, with garden, stable, and every comfortable appurtenance of gas, water, and police, may be had for about fifty dollars a month, whereas the tyranny of fashion made that same style of residence cost in Washington two hundred dollars a month. There, with an unusually vivacious and intelligent daughter, Pike spent his time in his large library, containing perhaps five thousand volumes, elegantly re-bound-the collection of a lifetime. His taste for books extended to their covering, and he has a passion for elegant printing in common and colored ink, all his own volumes on Masonry and Hindoo Philosophy being produced in this way by his amateur disciples. Fine swords, duelling pistols which he has used on the field, a collection of elaborate pipes, which he smoked pretty much all the time, and strange things of virtu, were parts of his surroundings. After he ceased practicing law, Pike’s real interest was the Masonic Lodge. He had become a Mason in 1850 and participated in the creation of the Masonic St. Johns’ College in Little Rock that same year. In 1851, he helped to form the Grand Chapter of Arkansas and was its Grand High Priest from 1853 to 1854. In 1853, he also associated with the Scottish Rite of Masons and rose rapidly in the organization. In 1859, he was elected grand commander of the Supreme Council, Southern Jurisdiction of the United States, the administrative district for all parts of the country except for the fifteen states east of the Mississippi River and north of the Ohio, and held that post until his death. After the war, he devoted much of his time to rewriting the rituals of the Scottish Rite Masons. He devoted all of his declining years to the study of Masonic literature. Some idea of the vast scope of this work may be imagined from the fact that he was not only a thorough student of Latin and Greek but also taught himself Sanskrit, Hebrew, Old Samaritan, Chaldean and Persian, and through his knowledge of these languages and dialects made an exhaustive study of the Parsee and Hindu religions, translated the Rig Veda and Zenda Vesta and left a record of these labors in fifteen unpublished volumes. For years, his Morals and Dogma (1871), still in print, was distributed to members of the Rite. The first thing to bear in mind in reading Morals and Dogma is to discriminate closely between what is really Pike and what is not. Indeed he himself wrote "In preparing this work, the Grand Commander has been about equally Author and Compiler; since he has extracted quite half its contents from the works of the best writers and most philosophic or eloquent thinkers. Perhaps it would have been better and more acceptable, if he had extracted more and written less. Still, perhaps half of it is his own; and, in incorporating here the thoughts and words of others, he has continually changed and added to the language, often intermingling, in the same sentences, his own words with theirs." Over his career, he published numerous other works on the order, including Meaning of Masonry, Book of the Words, and The Point Within the Circle. As he aged, he also became interested in spiritualism, particularly Indian thought, and its relationship to Masonry. Late in life, he learned Sanskrit and translated various literary works written in that language. As a result of his work in this area, he published Indo-Aryan Deities and Worship as Contained in the Rig-Veda. A student who sought the root of things, Gen. Pike was led into an investigation of oriental literature, and his translations, with comments, of the Rig-Veda, the sacred writings of the Hindoos, and the Zend-Avesta of the Persians, are a monument to scholarly and patient research. Besides being eminent as a philologist, ethnologist and oriental scholar; distinguished as a lawyer, jurist and orator, noted as a writer of prose and poetry, Albert Pike was the designer and executor of great public enterprises. Léo Taxil, whose real name was Marie Joseph AntoineGabriel Jogand-Pagés (1854–1907), was raised Catholic before joining French Freemasonry in a period when French Lodges were extremely anticlerical. In 1885 he returned to the Roman Catholic Church, and began to produce anti-Masonic literature with all sorts of astonishing revelations intended for the Catholic reader. Although Pike was particularly controversial during the U.S. Civil War, Taxil made him the secret Satanic Pope of the World, who reigned over a worldwide Satanic-Masonic enterprise from his “Luciferian Holy See” in Charleston, South Carolina (perhaps a strange and exotic place for the average European reader of the time, as well as the place where the Civil War began). Taxil admitted that everything he wrote about Pike was ficticious, including the allegations of Satanism. Taxil specifically admitted his forgery of the 1889 Pike Instructions in an 1897 confession. The God Makers, released as a film in 1982 and published as a book in 1984, is the most visible contemporary work of evangelical fundamentalist anti-Mormonism, particularly of its extreme postrationalist wing. One of the key arguments of The God Makers is that Mormonism is derived from Freemasonry. Quotes attributed to Albert Pike were prominent in The God Makers, including an address to “the leaders of World Freemasonry” in which Pike explains that there are two gods, Adonay (the God of the Christian Bible) and Lucifer. Lucifer, according to the quotation cited by Decker, is Pike’s hero while Adonay is the villain: “‘Lucifer is God and unfortunately Adonay is also god . . . for the absolute can only exist as two gods. . . . Lucifer, God of Light and God of Good, is struggling for humanity against Adonay, the God of Darkness and Evil.’” When William Schnoebelen and James Spencer published their Mormonism’s Temple of Doom two years after The God Makers, they quoted again from Pike’s spurious Instructions. In 1991 Schnoebelen wrote a new book, Masonry beyond the Light, which was published by the controversial Chick Publications (known for its anti-Mormon and anti-Catholic comics) and which contained an entire chapter on “Albert Pike and the Congress of Demons.” As former Confederates found themselves barred from the ballot box, Pike remained deeply opposed to black suffrage, insisting that "the white race, and that race alone, shall govern this country. It is the only one that is fit to govern, and it is the only one that shall." Albert Pike and other Confederate generals met in Nashville in 1867 to form a southern states-wide terrorist KKK, expanding the little project they had started two years before in Pulaski, Tenn. The organization he formed in Nashville designated Pike its chief judiciary officer, and its Grand Dragon for Arkansas. It was as the Sovereign Grand Commander of the Scottish Rite, and the recognized boss of the southern white masonic order, that Pike exercised the great clandestine power that welded the KKK together. A 1997 biography of Pike by Walter Lee Brown asserts that Pike was not a member of the Klan and Brown found "no contemporary, nor no reliable late evidence that Pike ever joined the Klan." Brown claims the work of Fleming, Davis and Horn are "unreliable histories", but offers no further evidence other than citing Trelease, which, in Brown's interpretation "casts doubt on Pike's membership." Albert Pike, national KKK chief judiciary officer and Grand Dragon of the Arkansas Klan after the Civil War, is buried in a crypt at the headquarters Temple of the Scottish Rite, Southern Jurisdiction, at 16th and S Streets, Washington. Pike died at the Scottish Rite Temple in Washington DC on April 2, 1891. He was buried in Oak Hill Cemetery there. On December 29, 1944, the anniversary of his birth, his body was removed from Oak Hill Cemetery and placed in a crypt in the temple. Pike once stated, "When I am dead, I wish my monument to be builded only in the hearts and memories of my brethren of the Ancient and Accepted Rite". There was a monument to Albert Pike in Washington constructed in Florence, Italy, by Prof. G. Trentanove, a famous sculptor, who had made a number of noted monuments. It was 30 feet high, the pedestal of red granite, 18 feet high and the figure of General Pike was of bronze, 12 feet in height. This monument, by the way, suggests one of the many interesting paradoxes of Pike's life, one of the many strange and fascinating contrasts. It is the only monument in Washington to a Southern general, a fact which causes a twinkle of amusement in the eyes of his old Southern compatriots. The statue commemorating Albert Pike, who served as a senior officer in the Confederate army, was erected at a site near Judiciary Square in Washington, DC. 30 Stat. 737 (April 9, 1898) authorized the monument to Confederate general Albert Pike in Washington, DC. The statue was erected in honor of Albert Pike’s service to the Masons, rather than his service in the Confederate army, but includes mention of his Civil War role. Pike once stated, "When I am dead, I wish my monument to be builded only in the hearts and memories of my brethren of the Ancient and Accepted Rite". The KKK of the 1860's-1870's was a secret, terroristic society whose disguised members carried out thousands of murders, tortures, arson of schools and churches. The United States government sent troops into the southern states to put down Klan terrorism. Pike first wrote about the Ku Klux Klan three years after the Klan's founding. n an April 16, 1868 editorial in the Memphis Daily Appeal, Pike indicated that his main problems lay not with its aims, but with its methods and leadership. Later in this editorial, he proposed "one great Order of Southern Brotherhood", a secret society which would have been a larger and more centrally organized version of the Klan: "If it were in our power, if it could be effected, we would unite every white man in the South, who is opposed to negro suffrage, into one great Order of Southern Brotherhood, with an organization complete, active, vigorous, in which a few should execute the concentrated will of all, and whose very existence should be concealed from all but its members." Confederate General Albert Pike's KKK career had been widely known among historians, southerners, and federal government officials since about 1905, four years after the Pike memorial statue was dedicated. It was in 1905 that the Neale Publishing Company, New York and Washington, published Ku Klux Klan: Its Origin, Growth and Disbandment, written and edited by Walter L. Fleming, incorporating earlier published material by J.C. Lester and D.L. Wilson. Historian Walter Fleming's introduction to this 1905 book explains that he has been given "information in regard to Ku Klux Klan, by many former members of the order, and by their friends and relatives." On page 27, Dr. Fleming states that "General Albert Pike, who stood high in the Masonic order, was the chief judicial officer of the Klan." On a page of illustrations (facing page 19) of important founders of the KKK, Dr. Fleming places General Pike's portrait in the center, makes it larger than the six others on the page, and repeats this information as a caption: "General Albert Pike, chief judicial officer." Fleming attaches as an appendix to his book, a KKK "prescript" or secret constitution which had then recent been discovered. This document sets forth the regulations of the Klan's "judiciary" department, over which Albert Pike ruled. This is the internal disciplinary or counterintelligence department. It also corresponds to Pike and the Klan's influence over the regular court system and the legal profession in the post-civil War southern states. As the boss of all the southern secret societies and simultaneously president of the Tennessee Bar Association, Pike was the grand strategist of Klan "justice."” It is to be stressed that Walter Fleming's book was not a slander or hatchet job against Albert Pike. Though it revealed much important data for the first time, it placed the KKK and Pike in the most favorable possible light. The book was a hit among diehard Confederates and Anglo-Saxon "race patriots," and it launched Fleming's career as the dean of southern historians. Fleming became the leading apologist for the KKK, and was the father of the modern historical line that Reconstruction was a corrupt oppression of the South. In September 1903, Fleming had written in the Journal of the Southern History Association: "The very need for such an organization in the disordered conditions of the time caused the Dens [KKK local units) to begin to exercise the duties of a police patrol for regulating the conduct of thieving and impudent negroes and similar 'loyal' whites." Basing his career on his defense of Pike's KKK, Fleming became dean of arts and sciences at Vanderbilt University in Nashville, Tennessee. The National Cyclopedia of American Biography calls his 1905 Ku Klux Klan history "an authoritative account of that organization." The Dictionary of American Biography states bluntly: "Fleming covered the Civil War and Reconstruction in the South more fully than any other man. His works are characterized by * * * scholarly objective. A Southerner, Fleming wrote of the sectional conflict with Southern sympathies yet he was more objective than most Southerners of his generation. The historiography of the Civil War and Reconstruction owes much to his indefatigable research, his breadth of scholarship, and power of interpretation." Susan Lawrence Davis, whose father was a founding member of the Klan in Alabama, writes in her sympathetic account titled Authentic History: Ku Klux Klan, 1865–1877, published in 1924, that Pike was personally chosen by Nathan Bedford Forrest to serve as the Klan's "Chief Judicial Officer" and to head the Klan in Arkansas as "Grand Dragon of that Realm." In 1939's Invisible Empire: The Story of the Ku Klux Klan, 1866–1871, Stanley Horn, who served as president of the Tennessee Historical Society, also reports that Forrest appointed Pike to lead the Klan in Arkansas and credits him with a surge of local Klan activity in April 1868. Horn says that a pro-Klan poem, "Death's Brigade", is attributed to Pike, although "of course, he did not have the bravado to claim that honor publicly at that time." Southern Agrarian poet John Gould Fletcher, who grew up in Little Rock in a house that Pike built, likewise believed that Pike wrote the poem. Fleming designated Confederate Major James R. Crowe as the preeminent source for his 1905 KKK History, and describes Crowe as one of the original KKK founders in Pulaski. Fleming said that Major Crowe "held high rank in the Masonic order." In his honor roll of "well-known members of the Klan," Dr. Fleming places "General John C. Brown, of Pulaski, Tennessee" and "Colonel Joseph Fussell, of Columbia, Tennessee." General Brown and Colonel Fussell, like Major A Crowe, are readily identifiable as soldiers of Albert Pike's masonic order. General Brown had been a master mason in the Pulaski lodge for 15 years when the KKK was formed there, and became grand master of Tennessee Masons and governor of Tennessee during the Klan's era of power. Colonel Fussell was commandant of Tennessee's masonic Knights Templar during the Klan rule. The "Tennessee Templars: A Register of Names with Biographical Sketches of the Knights Templar of Tennessee" was authored by James D. Richardson, who was himself the Commandant of Knights Templar and Grand Master of Masons in Tennessee, and was speaker of of the Tennessee House of Representatives during the era of the Klan power. This same James D. Richardson was Albert Pike's successor as commander of the southern Scottish Rite masons. It was this same Richardson who ordered the Pike statue to be erected in Washington, D.C. It was Richardson who, as a U.S. congressman from Tennessee, introduced into the U.S. House of Representatives the infamous 1898 resolution: It called for the federal government to provide federal land Mami to A Richardson's masonic organization, on which to put up their statue honoring the master strategist of KKK terror. Susan Lawrence Davis's 1924 Authentic History, Ku Klux Klan, 1865-1877 repeats the pattern Fleming created in 1905, revealing Pike's KKK role but treating him and the Klan sympathetically. The Davis book was written to celebrate the new, 20th-century KKK, which was just then staging full-dress mass marches in Washington and northern cities such as Detroit. In her chapter on General Pike's leadership of the Klan, Miss Davis applauds Pike's clever stewardship of the KKK stsecret organization. She reproduces in her KKK history an oil portrait of Albert Pike given to her for the KKK book by Pike's son. The same is true of other book-length histories of the Klan and numerous pubElished biographies of Albert Pike: Pike's role as Klan leader or KKK boss of Arkansas is discussed, but treated as if KKK terrorist murder of African-Americans was "regrettable" but "only natural" and "understandable." In his book, The Tragic Era, Claude Bowers describes the KKK as patriotic southerners defending their way of life from out-of-control blacks and northerners. Bowers, who served many years as the U.S. ambassador to Spain and to Chile, described Albert Pike as one of the handful of distinguished, respectable founders of the KKK and the Klan's leader in Arkansas. Bowers wrote that much of the KKK's alleged violence was actually perpetrated by negroes disguised in Klan robes to wreak vengeance on other negroes. The University of Arkansas at Fayetteville has in its archives a "Declaration of Independence" authored by Albert Pike. The May, 1861 document proposed that Arkansas secede from the United States, but was rejected. It was too radically phrased, even for a state that did finally leave the Union. Pike's Declaration begins as a parody of the 1776 USA Declaration. Glaringly omitted are the original's references to God, and to the God-given equal rights of mankind. As reasons for demanding the breakup of the American republic, Pike asserts that the "Northern States and people have made [the U.S.] Constitution * * * an instrument *** to inflict the curse of freedom on an inferior race, to the ruin of ourselves and our posterity, for whom the Constitution was made." "In fulfillment of their determination to lower the white man to the level of the African * * * they have adhered to the doctrine that negroes may become citizens of the United States * * *" University of Denver Religious Studies professor Carl Raschke, in his 1990 book (Painted Black) (Harper and Rowe), describes Pike as the Satanist architect of the Ku Klux Klan. Raschke wrote that around "the middle of the nineteenth century, there rose to fame in France a renegade Catholic rector called Alphonse Constant, who changed his name to Eliphas Levi. Levi was considered the Michelangelo of the suppressed traditions of 'black magic' in the Christian West. Levi exerted a powerful influence on a whole generation of avant-garde intellectuals in continental Europe, Britain, and the United States. "[Levi's] most notable apostle in America was one Albert Pike, a Confederate General from Arkansas and Robert E. Lee's chief of army intelligence. Immediately after the Civil War, Pike became the premier 'reformer' within the brotherhood of American Freemasons. He assumed the leadership of the Southern Jurisdiction of Scottish Rite Masonry and gained notoriety for his benevolent ministrations on the fraternity's behalf. But Pike also has a less glorious and murkier credit to his name. Pike was one of the original architects of the Ku Klux Klan, which, contrary to common belief, was not at its inception primarily a racist club for semiliterates. The white robes, cross burning, conical hats, and use of such titles as 'grand dragon' and 'imperial wizard' derives from the strange lore developed by Levi. "During the period of Reconstruction in the South right after the Civil War, the Klan was fundamentally a terrorist organization motivated by magic and mysticism, whose larger purpose was to drive out the Northern occupation army *** The amalgam of violence, secrecy, and fanaticism that went into the original constitution of the Klan became the basis for the rise of satanism in the South over the past decade [the 1980's]." Col. Winfield Jones, a longtime Washington D.C. journalist, wrote (Knights of the Ku Klux Klan) in 1941 [Tocsin Publishers of New York City]. Jones had conducted an extensive investigation of the Ku Klux Klan during the previous 20 years. He describes in his book the complete cooperation he got from the KKK's 20th-century leaders, from Col. William J. Simmons in Atlanta, founder of the revived (1915) Klan, and from other Klan leaders throughout the country. The KKK knew, when they spoke to him and turned over their papers to him, that he would faithfully report to the public their own point of view. Jones says that he "ransacked the Congressional Library and other libraries for everything printed concerning the old Ku Klux Klan, that originated soon after the Civil War. In this search I secured a large amount of extremely interesting information concerning Reconstruction days, including many original documents and letters describing episodes and occurrences of those stirring times when the 'white horsemen' galloped over the South in their mission to restore the political and social rule of the Caucasian."Jones brings up Pike on page 27, in discussing the Spring 1867 organization of the KKK as a coordinated national group. "The chief judicial officer of the original Ku Klux Klan was the celebrated Gen. Albert Pike, of Arkansas, father of Scottish Rite Masonry in the United States." In 1971, Allen W. Trelease published White Terror: The Ku Klux Klan Conspiracy and Southern Reconstruction, whichclaimed that the office that Pike allegedly held in the KKK was not mentioned in "The Prescript", the Klan constitution. However, the office of Grand Dragon, which Davis claims Pike once held, is explicitly mentioned in the 1867 Klan constitution. Trelease noted that "Pike may well have affiliated with the Klan." As evidence, Trelease reported that Pike "was intrigued by secret societies and rituals" and "sympathized with the Klan's stated objectives." Gary Scott, the Park Service's principal historian for the Washington DC Region, was saved from having to testify how his Masonic affiliations may have influenced his actions and the deployment of the Park Service police relative to the Pike statue. Scott has defended the Pike statue in television news coverage of the controversy. According to papers filed by the U.S. Attorney's office in the Bevel-Chaitkin trial, Gary Scott "researched Albert Pike and the Pike statue in response to Congressional inquiries." Michael Farquhar, a former writer and editor at The Washington Post, called Pike a "blustering blowhard, a feeble poet, a laughable hypocrite, a shameless jingoist, a notoriously insubordinate military officer, and yes, a bigot with genocidal inclinations". John W. Boettjer, then managing editor of the Scottish Rite Journal, wrote a rebuttal op-ed in The Washington Post and pointed out that: "[Pike] received a full pardon from the federal government for his service in the Civil War as a Confederate general. There is not a jot of reliable proof that Albert Pike was ever a member, much less an officer, of the Klan." In late 1992, members of the LaRouche movement, including civil rights activist and Lyndon LaRouche's vice-presidential candidate James Bevel, began a series of protests demanding the memorial be removed. Discussions about removing the statue in Washington DC (and other statues of Confederates around the country) began in the summer of 2017, following a white supremacist rally at Confederate monuments in Charlottesville, Virginia. On June 19, 2020, protesters toppled and burned the statue of Pike. NPS reportedly stated that it intended to mitigate the damage to the statue. On August 4, 2025, the National Park Service announced that the statue was being restored for reinstallation. It was reinstalled on October 25, 2025, despite a shutdown of the federal government at the time. On 08 August 2025 Delegate Eleanor Holmes Norton (for herself, Mr. Carson, Ms. Clarke of New York, and Mr. Moulton) introduced H.R.4934 the “Albert Pike Statue Removal Act” that directed "the Secretary of the Interior, acting through the Director of the National Park Service, to remove the statue to the memory and in honor of Albert Pike erected near Judiciary Square in the District of Columbia under the “Joint Resolution Granting permission for the erection of a monument or statue in Washington City, District of Columbia, in honor of the late Albert Pike.”, approved April 9, 1898 (30 Stat. 737). The Secretary of the Interior may donate the statue to a museum or other similar entity, as determined appropriate by the Secretary, to ensure its preservation and interpretation in an indoor setting. The recipient of the statue may not store, display, or exhibit the statue outside. If the statue is stored, displayed, or exhibited outside, ownership of the statue will revert back to the Federal Government." Norton said that Pike, a Confederate general who served dishonorably and was forced to resign in disgrace, represents the worst of the Confederacy and has no claim to be memorialized in the nation's capital. "This Administration's decision to restore and reinstall the Albert Pike statue is morally objectionable and an affront to the mostly black and brown residents of the District of Columbia," Norton said. "Pike served dishonorably. He took up arms against the United States, misappropriated funds, and was ultimately captured and imprisoned by his own troops. He resigned in disgrace after committing a war crime and dishonoring even his own Confederate military service. I've long believed Confederate statues should be placed in museums as historical artifacts, not remain in parks and locations that imply honor.... "Pike, a Confederate general who served dishonorably and was forced to resign in disgrace, represents the worst of the Confederacy. Soldiers under his command were found to have mutilated the bodies of Union soldiers and he was ultimately imprisoned after his fellow Confederate officers reported that he had been misappropriating funds. Adding to the dishonor of taking up arms against the United States, Pike dishonored even his Confederate military service. He has absolutely no claim to be memorialized on federal land in the nation’s capital. Even those who do not want Confederate statues removed will have to justify affording Pike any honor considering his dishonorable history." https://books.google.com/books?id=FcEpAAAAYAAJ">The Life Story of Albert Pike By Fred William Allsopp Executive Order 14253 https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5554787/"> The Crimean War as a technological enterprise Yakup Bektas - Notes Rec R Soc Lond. 2017 Feb 1;71(3):233–262. doi: 10.1098/rsnr.2016.0007 Both the Union and Confederacy had a mix of excellent and poor military leaders, as many had been classmates at West Point and received similar military education. However, differences in strategy, resources, and the terrain of different war theaters led to varied effectiveness.

    In the Eastern Theater (primarily Virginia), Confederate generals like Robert E. Lee and "Stonewall" Jackson initially outmaneuvered a series of less-decisive Union commanders such as George B. McClellan and Joseph Hooker. This created a perception that the South had superior leadership. Confederate generals often employed daring, offensive tactics to compensate for their material disadvantages, which resulted in some significant tactical victories (like Chancellorsville) but also high casualties, including the loss of key leaders like Jackson. The Confederacy quickly identified its best commanders in the East and gave them command authority, while the Union struggled through several generals before finding the right leaders.

    The Union had a deeper pool of capable generals, which became more apparent as the war progressed. While the Confederacy struggled to find effective army commanders beyond Lee and the Johnstons, the Union ultimately found exceptional leaders in Ulysses S. Grant, William T. Sherman, Philip Sheridan, and George H. Thomas. Union generals in the West (like Grant and Sherman) consistently outclassed their Confederate counterparts (like Braxton Bragg and Albert Sidney Johnston), winning major victories at Shiloh, Vicksburg, and Atlanta. Union generals, particularly Grant, capitalized on the North's overwhelming advantages in manpower, industry, and logistics. Their strategy involved coordinated, sustained pressure across multiple fronts to destroy the South's ability to wage war, which ultimately proved decisive. Union President Abraham Lincoln was persistent in replacing ineffective generals until he found those willing to fight aggressively and utilize the North's strength, a process which took time but ultimately succeeded.

    The common notion that Confederate generals were universally "better" is largely a result of early Confederate successes in the Eastern Theater. When considering the overall performance across all theaters of the war, and especially the final results, the Union leadership, once the right commanders were in place, proved more effective in achieving its strategic objectives.

    Civil War historian Gary W. Gallagher's book "Lee and His Generals" examined Robert E. Lee, his principal subordinates, the treatment they have received in the literature on Confederate military history, and the continuing influence of Lost Cause arguments in the late-twentieth-century United States. Gallagher’s underlying argument is that memory, not merely history, has defined Lee and his generals in the American imagination. He dissects the “Lost Cause” tradition that elevated Lee and Jackson to near-saintly status while scapegoating others such as Longstreet. In doing so, the book provides a nuanced understanding of how postwar politics, regional identity, and cultural mythmaking shaped the way Americans remember the Confederacy’s most famous commanders.

    Historical images of Lee and his lieutenants were shaped to a remarkable degree by the reminiscences and other writings of ex-Confederates who formulated what became known as the Lost Cause interpretation of the conflict. Lost Cause advocates usually portrayed Lee as a perfect Christian warrior and Stonewall Jackson as his peerless "right arm" and often explained Lee's failings as the result of inept performances by other generals. Many historians throughout the twentieth century have approached Lee and other Confederate military figures within an analytical framework heavily influenced by the Lost Cause school.

    The twelve pieces in Lee and His Generals in War and Memory explore the effect of Lost Cause arguments on popular perceptions of Lee and his lieutenants. Part I offers four essays on Lee, followed in Part II by five essays that scrutinize several of Lee's most famous subordinates, including Stonewall Jackson, John Bankhead Magruder, James Longstreet, A.P. Hill, Richard S. Ewell, and Jubal Early. Taken together, these pieces not only consider how Lost Cause writings enhanced or diminished Confederate military reputations but also illuminate the various ways post--Civil War writers have interpreted the actions and impacts of these commanders.

    Part III contains two articles that shift the focus to the writings of Jubal Early and LaSalle Corbell Pickett, both of whom succeeded in advancing the notion of gallant Lost Cause warriors. The final two essays, which contemplate the current debate over the Civil War's meaning for modern Americans, focus on Ken Burns's documentary The Civil War and on the issue of battlefield preservation. Gallagher adeptly highlights the chasm that often separates academic and popular perceptions of the Civil War and discusses some of the ways in which the Lost Cause continues to resonate.

    Lee’s Lieutenants: A Study in Command is a comprehensive three-volume work by Douglas Southall Freeman, originally published between 1942 and 1944. The subtitle “A Study in Command” reflects its dual focus: on the operational history of the Army of Northern Virginia under Robert E. Lee, and on the personalities, leadership styles, and dynamics of Lee’s senior subordinates. It is widely regarded as a landmark in American Civil War historiography.

    The work is divided into three volumes. Volume 1 covers from Manassas to Malvern Hill, introducing the rise of the Army of Northern Virginia, its leadership, and early campaigns. Volume 2 deals with Cedar Mountain to Chancellorsville, focusing on mid-war operations and the shifting fortunes of Lee’s army. Volume 3 (“Gettysburg to Appomattox”) follows the army into its climactic battles and ultimate surrender in 1865.

    Within these volumes, Freeman weaves together campaign narratives, biographical sketches of officers (e.g., Jackson, Longstreet, Ewell), maps, portraits, appendices and indices. Freeman’s work was credited with shaping how generations of readers and military students view Confederate command structure and leadership under Lee. For instance, it was used in military schools and found resonance beyond purely academic circles.

    However, contemporary historians also critique aspects of it—especially Freeman’s sympathetic treatment of Confederate leadership and lesser attention to issues such as slavery and the broader social context of the war.

    John Pike (1613–1688/89) was the founding ancestor from which the relationship is traced. He was the founder of Woodbridge, New Jersey. The connection with Albert Pike (1809–1891), known for his role as a Confederate general and influential Freemason. is not a direct parent-child relationship, but a lineage that includes several generations, such as John Pike (1572–1654), John Pike (1613–1688/89), and Benjamin Pike (1780–?). Albert was a direct descendant of John Pike, who immgrated to the Massachusetts Bay Colony with his family in 1635. Albert descends from the original immigrant through the following line of his ancestors: John Pike (1572–1654); John Pike (1613–1688/89) founder of Woodbridge, New Jersey; Joseph Pike (1638–1694); Thomas Pike (1682–1753/4); John Pike (1710–1755); Thomas Pike (1739–1816); Benjamin Pike (1780–?); Albert Pike (1809–1891). John Pike Srson [1587 - 26 May 1654] John Pikeson [08 Nov 1613 - 20 Jan 1689] Joseph Pikeson [26 Dec 1638 - 04 Sep 1694] Thomas Pike son [04 Aug 1681 - 12 Feb 1753] John Pike son [10 Dec 1710 - 15 Apr 1755] Thomas Pikeson [25 Sep 1739 - 15 Sep 1833] Benjamin Pike son[23 May 1780 - 14 Apr 1833] Albert Pike son1809–1891 https://ancestors.familysearch.org/en/LH1P-PJ7/william-pike-1746-1790 William Pikebrother174518?? Joseph Pikebrother17451815 William T. Pike Sr.son17991882 Jasper R. Pike CSAson18281883 John Floyd "Buddy" Pike CSAbrother18221870 John E. Pikeson18531920 Andrew Jackson "Jack" Pikeson18841973 John E. Pikeson19241999 John E. Pike IIIson1953203? History was never just grey, as monochrome photographs may suggest, but colourful and vivid. As black-and-white photographs display only a limited range of three-dimensional depth by lack of colour, added information by colourisation can contribute to education of history. Hand-coloured photographs were most popular in the mid- to late-19th century before the invention of colour photography. The majority of photography remained monochrome until the mid-20th century. Although the colourisation of photographs and films is therefore an expression of art, it can bring a bygone age closer to the spectator than just reading about it ever could do. Three brother Pike, Joseph, William and Thomas, were noticed in Orangeburg Cunty Suth Carolina in the middle of the 18th century. Joseph, William and Thomas are reported with birth dates from 1744 to 1745, suggesting that possibly the dates are wrong, or two were twins, or that the three wewre born in very rapid succession, or that the three named were not in fact brothers. The apparent eldest of the three, Thomas Pike was born in 1744 and became an acomplished dancing instructor and fencing master. On 16 January 1824 the Charlston SC "Gazette" reported "died at New London, New Hampshire, Thomas Pike, Age 84, a solider in the French War, and Officer in the Revolution." Joseph's brother William Pike born in 1745, and died in 1816. William lived in Beaufort SC and owned large tracts of land near the Broad River, including 460 acres in Colleton County, where he was recorded as owning 136 slaves. As the second oldest city in South Carolina, Beaufort's early prosperity was tied to its location in this extensive estuarine system. The river and sound allowed for a thriving colonial port and a plantation economy based on indigo, rice, and Sea Island cotton. Records report that Joseph Pike, also born in 1745, fought in the Revolutionary War for independence. Joseph Pike served in Captain Michael Watson' Company of Volunteers on horseback during 1781-1782. Listed in "South Carolina Patriots in the American Revoluion" [Moss, pg 774], some of the primary historical records, including Georgia's Roster of the Revolution, do not list a Joseph Pike as a veteran from that state. Joseph Pike died 11 October 1815 and was buried in Hancock Country, Georgia. His son John Pike was born in 1764 in Virginia, and died in 1842 in Baldwin Georgia. William Pike was born in 1799 in Edgefield, Edgefield County, South Carolina, and died in 1882 and was buried in the Pike Family Cemetery Randolph County, Alabama. Two of his sons, John Floyd "Buddy" Pike [1822–1870] and Jasper Reeves Pike [1828–1883, served in the army of the Confederate States of America. John Floyd PIKE [known as "Buddy"] served in Co K 5th Alabama Infantry CSA. Probably born in 06 June 1822 in Fayette Co., Georgia, he died in 1870 and was buried in the Pike Family Cemetery. In candor, his dates and identity are rather uncertain, as his name was common within the family at that time. Other sources relate birth dates of 1822 and a death in 1890, or birth on 24 November 1834 in Coweta County GA, and a death on 04 July 1907. John Floyd's brother Jasper Reeves Pike served in Co D 1st Alabama Infantry CSA. Born in 1828 in Fayette Co., Georgia, he died in 1883 and was buried in the Pike Family Cemetery. In 1859, due to political unrest in the United States and the looming threat of civil war, the people of Perote in Bullock County Alabama raised a militia unit and was known as the Perote Guards. The uniforms and company flag were hand-made by the ladies of Perote and presented to the men on the steps of Perote’s Methodist Church. In the Summer of 1861, the Perote Guards traveled to Pensacola Florida, and became company “D” the 1st Alabama Infantry which had already been organized in February and March of 1861. 1st Infantry Regiment completed its organization at Pensacola, Florida, in March, 1861. The men were from the counties of Tallapoosa, Pike, Lowndes, Wilcox, Talladega, Barbour, and Macon. For a year it manned the batteries at Pensacola, then with 1,000 men moved to Missouri where all but a detachment were captured at Island No. 10. The prisoners were exchanged during September, 1862, and it was soon ordered to Port Hudson. Here the unit endured many hardships, and nearly 500 were captured on July 9, 1863. Exchanged and reorganized with 610 effectives the 1st joined the Army of Tennessee and served in General Quarles' and Shelley's Brigade. It took an active part in the Atlanta and Tennessee Campaigns, and ended the war in North Carolina. Its casualties were high at Peach Tree Creek and were again heavy at Franklin and Nashville. Less than 100 surrendered in April, 1865. The field officers were Colonels Henry D. Clayton and I.G.W. Steedman, Lieutenant Colonel Michael B. Locke, and Majors S.L. Knox and Jere N. Williams. Jasper was a man of mystery, taken prisoner by the Yankees at Island No.10 on 08 April 1862 and sent to Camp Douglas IL before being transferred to Vicksburg MI where he was parolled after 06 September 1862. He next showed himself in the pages of history on 04 July 1863 when he was again captured by the Yankees, this time at Port Hudson, where he gave his name as Joseph R. Pike. Possibly he had violated his parole and returned to his old unit. Rebel soldiers were paroled on terms that required them to pledge their honor not to fight again until officially exchanged for prisoners on the other side. Soldiers were released on their word of honor not to take up arms again until they were formally exchanged for an enemy soldier. They were allowed to return to their homes but remained prisoners of war under a parole system, not free citizens. Paroled prisoners often swore an oath to their captors that in return for their freedom, they would refuse subsequent military service until the war ended. The system of paroles disqualified captured troops from fighting for a specified time. This saved resources by eliminating the costs of housing, feeding, and guarding prisoners and improved prisoner health. Giving then parole meant they didn't have to feed them, guard them, or take care of them. The system broke down in 1863 when the Confederacy refused to exchange African American prisoners, leading to the mass imprisonment of captured soldiers. The Union government's suspension of prisoner exchanges in 1864, primarily due to Confederate policies regarding Black Union soldiers, caused massive overcrowding and a deterioration of conditions in all existing camps, both North and South. The Yankee's Elmira Prison in Elmira, New York, was known as "Hellmira" by its inmates. The camp was designed for 4,000 prisoners but held over 12,000 at its peak, leading to severe overcrowding. Nearly 3,000 of the approximately 12,100 prisoners at Elmira died, a death rate of about 25% to 28%. Most deaths resulted from a combination of disease, malnutrition, poor sanitation (particularly from the polluted Foster's Pond within the camp), and exposure to harsh winter weather conditions to which many Southern soldiers were unaccustomed. While conditions were universally terrible in Civil War POW camps on both sides, Elmira is often cited as the Union equivalent in brutality to the Confederacy's notorious Andersonville Prison (Camp Sumter) in Georgia. Andersonville had a higher total number of deaths (nearly 13,000 Union prisoners), but Elmira's mortality rate was comparable. The commandant of the prison, Captain Henry Wirz, was the only person executed for war crimes during the Civil War, a testament to the horrific conditions at Andersonville. Christopher Thrasher (11/20/2025) From Apprentices of War to Hardened Veterans. HistoryNet Retrieved from https://www.historynet.com/1st-alabama-confederate-regiment/.




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