1823 - Central American Independence
During early colonial days, Guatemala was part of the Captaincy-general of Guatemala, a subdivision of the Viceroyalty of New Spain in Mexico City, comprising all of Central America plus the Mexican State of Chiapas. Following Mexico's independence from Spain, Central America, under the rule of Guatemala, declared its independence from Mexico in 1823. Soon, however, El Salvador, followed by other population clusters, broke away from this Central American confederation, In 1839, the cluster that is now Guatemala became an independent republic. Since then, at least 25 attempts have been made to reconstitute a Central American political en city--all of them unsuccessful.
As the eighteenth century wore on. the ideas of the French Enlightenment penetrated Guatemala. The monthly Gaceta de Guate mala, published from 1729 to 1816, became more liberal and somewhat anticlerical under the editorship of Simón Bergaño y Villegas from 1804 to 1807. Although the Gaceta ceased publication in 1816, its role was taken up by the even more radical El Editor Constitucional and El Amigo de la Patria, both of which began publication in 1820. The Sociedad económica de amigos del País (Economic Society of the Friends of the Country), functioning between 1796 and 1799, served as a forum for discussion of colonial problems.
The growing liberal movement based itself on interests as well as ideas. Although a conservative faction was strong - based on royal officeholders and the merchants-consul, who were authorized to act as agents of the trade monopoly between Spain and the colonies—the growing liberal movement was supported not only by urban professionals and intellectuals but also by agriculturists and merchants excluded from the trade monopoly who would stand to benefit from the liberalization of trade. The liberal movement was backed especially by the society of indigo growers and even by the influential Fermin Aycinena family.
Independence came eventually as the outcome of a confused period of turmoil that began in 1808, when Napoleon occupied Spain and placed his brother Joseph on the throne. The colonists of Guatemala, like those elsewhere in the Americas, were suddenly faced with questions of legitimacy. Like the colonists elsewhere, they rejected the authority of Bonaparte and sent a representative to the loyal parliament (cortés) that met in Cádiz. The parliament, grateful to the colonies for their loyalty and attempting to reinforce their support for the Bourbon cause, granted them greater local authority, freer trade, and representation in future governments of Spain.
The hopes and expectations of greater freedom aroused by the acts of the parliament were frustrated, however, by the arrival in 1811 of a new president of the audiencia, José de Bustamante y Guerra, who feared that a liberal policy would loosen the ties of Central America to Spanish authority and therefore refused to recognize the liberal policies of the parliament. Repression increased with the restoration of Ferdinand VII to the throne of Spain in 1814. The liberal constitution of 1812 promulgated by the parliament was disavowed by the monarch ; supporters of the parliament, including in Guatemala the Fermín Aycinena family, were persecuted, and the monarch even re-established the Inquisition. In the mother country itself, however, those who had fought for the Bourbon monarchy against Napoleon were not willing to accept that they had fought for oppression and not for liberty, and in 1820 a revolution in Spain restored the liberal constitution of 1812, which provided for freedom of the press. free trade. and free elections.
It was at this juncture that the news arrived in Guatemala City of Agustín de Iturbide's declaration of Mexican independence on April 10, 1821. Although the acting president of the audiencia, Gabino Gainza, urged the Central Americans to remain loyal to Spain, local sentiment was predominantly in favor of independence. When the news arrived in September that the northern province of Chiapas had decided to join the Mexican independence movement, Gainza called a meeting of the political and religious leaders in Guatemala City to decide on a course of action. Although the archbishop and some others opposed independence, Gainza could see that majority sentiment favored it. and on September 15 Gainza proclaimed independence, designating himself as president of the Federation of Central America (also called the United Provinces of Central America and the Central American Federation or Union). The Declaration of Independence was composed by José Cecilio del Valle, the editor of the liberal newspaper El Amigo de la Patria and the leading intellectual figure in the country.
For almost two years the actual constitutional situation was confused; varying currents of opinion favored independence for each province, independence for a united Central America, or independence in union with Mexico. El Salvador, uneasy about the prospect of being dominated by either Guatemala or Mexico, even voted to join the United States and sent a representative to Washington to see if it could be arranged. Iturbide proclaimed himself emperor of a domain extending all the way to Panama and sent troops to Central America under General Vicente Filísola to make good his claim. The Guatemalans acquiesced in this new situation. although there was resistance from El Salvador. Iturbide was unable to consolidate his rule, however, and abdicated in March 1823, leaving Central America to its own devices.
Filísola summoned a Central American constituent assembly, which issued a second declaration of independence, on July 1. 1823, and drafted a federal constitution. The provinces were five — the present day nations of Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. Manuel José Arce of El Salvador was elected president, and Valle was a close second.
The constititution established a federal congress and senate but gave the five provinces their own legislative bodies and internal self-government. A president and vice president headed the federal executive, and a supreme court of justice was the highest judicial authority. Each province was also to have a chief, vice chief, and supreme court. A variety of civil rights were guaranteed, but the Catholic religion was made official; slavery was abolished. Disputes soon arose. beginning with the third session of the congress in March 1826, as the Conservatives, who had lost out in the question of independence and the establishment of the federal system. tried to regain power.
In the context of nineteenth-century Central America the terms Conservative and Liberal defy precise definitions. Perhaps the closest equations are proclerical and anticlerical, respectively. In essence President Arce went over to the Conservatives, leading to conflict with the Liberal governments of El Salvador and Guatemala. Arce deposed the Guatemalan chief of state ; the unfortunate vice chief who succeeded him was lynched by a mob, and power in Guatemala was then assumed by a Conservative. Intervention by Arce in Honduras was less successful, however, and his government was overthrown by a Liberal army led by Francisco Morazán. still regarded as the greatest Honduran hero. The Conservative leaders. including Arce, were sent into exile. along with the archbishop.
Morazán was elected president of the federation in 1830; he abolished church tithes, legalized civil marriage. and developed a system of public education. The federal capital was moved to San Salvador, a more reliably Liberal environment than Guatemala City. Valle finally won the elections of 1834; but he died right after the election. and Morazán accepted another term. In Guatemala Pedro Molina, the Liberal editor of the periodical El Editor Constitucional, served as provisional chief from 1829 to 1830.
After some turmoil the Guatemalan legislature elected as provincial chief of state Mariano Gálvez, who put through an enlightened Liberal program consonant with Morazán's, including the building of schools and roads. legalizing the equality of rights between legitimate and illegitimate children. instituting trial by jury, and abolishing the death penalty. Elected to a second term in 1835, Gálvez was overthrown in the Conservative counterrevolution of 1838. Although Morazán was initially successful in inflicting defeat on the Conservative rebels, he was finally driven from the capital in March 1840 and went into exile. Two years later he returned to Central America, seizing control of the government of Costa Rica as a prelude to raising an army that he hoped would reconstitute a Liberal-dominated federation. He was defeated, however, and finally executed on September 15, 1842, the twenty-first anniversary of Central American independence, thus extinguishing the last possibility of maintaining a Central American Federation.
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