MD-11
UPS MD-11F aircraft are listed as assets available for the Civil Reserve Air Fleet (CRAF) program, managed by the Department of Transportation (DOT). Aviation Week’s Fleet Discovery database showed 59 MD-11s in service or recently parked and 10 in storage as of 10 November 2025. The active fleet of 59 aircraft belonged to FedEx (29), UPS (25) and Western Global (five).
At 5:15 PM EST, November 4, 2025, UPS flight #2976, MD-11 ( N259UP), crashed during takeoff from Louisville Muhammad Ali International Airport (SDF), Louisville, KY. The flight was a cargo flight from SDF to Daniel K Inouye International Airport (HNL), Honolulu, HI. The aircraft impacted buildings in an industrial area near the airport. The incident resulted in the deaths of the three crew members and at least eleven people on the ground.
The aircraft's left engine and pylon detached during takeoff. Footage confirmed a fire "engulfing" the left wing and engine during takeoff. Experts suggest the engine's rupture may have also broken fuel lines in the wing, which likely intensified the fire and contributed to the plane's inability to maintain flight. With one engine detached and the wing severely compromised by fire, the aircraft was unable to gain significant altitude (reaching only about 100-175 feet) or control. The cockpit voice recorder indicated a warning bell sounded 37 seconds after the crew called for takeoff thrust, and the crew struggled to control the plane for about 25 seconds before it crashed.
The aircraft had recently undergone heavy maintenance, and investigators are reviewing the maintenance records, including the work done on the engine and wing structure, as a potential factor in the structural failure. The FAA (Federal Aviation Administration) subsequently issued an emergency Airworthiness Directive (AD) on November 8, 2025, grounding all U.S.-registered MD-11 and MD-11F aircraft, pending comprehensive inspections, citing an unsafe condition "likely to exist or develop in other products of the same type design".
NTSB investigators have stated there is no indication that engine-specific maintenance was performed during the six-week heavy check in San Antonio. The maintenance records indicate the work was related to the aircraft's main structure. Structural and Fuel Tank Repairs: The maintenance involved a permanent repair for a crack in the center wing upper fuel tank, as well as addressing corrosion issues in the center cargo bilge area. FAA records show that a crack on the left engine pylon was repaired in 2019, but this was a separate maintenance event from the recent heavy check.
American Airlines Flight 191 was a McDonnell Douglas DC-10-10 that crashed on May 25, 1979, after its left engine and pylon assembly separated from the wing during takeoff from Chicago's O'Hare International Airport. The NTSB determined the probable cause was an asymmetrical stall and loss of control resulting from damage caused by improper maintenance procedures.
The MD-11, the world's only modern large, wide-cabin trijet, offered a highly sophisticated flight deck and advanced automatic system controls that substantially reduce pilot workload. In service with customers in all parts of the world, the MD-11 was produced in Long Beach, California, at the Douglas Products Division of the Boeing Commercial Airplanes until February 2001. A worldwide network of subcontractors and suppliers supported the assembly line.
The MD-11 was available in four models -- passenger, all freighter, convertible freighter and "combi," where passengers and freight are carried on the main deck with additional freight carried below the deck. An extended-range (ER) feature was available on all versions. Seating capacities on the standard airplane vary from 285 in a three-class arrangement to 410 in an all-economy configuration. Below the main deck, the MD-11 provides more space for containerized or palletized cargo after passenger bags are loaded than any other jetliner, yielding important additional revenue for its operators.
Advances in aerodynamics, propulsion, aircraft systems, cockpit avionics and interior design contribute to the performance and operating economy of all MD-11 models. Aerodynamic improvements include winglets and a redesigned wing trailing edge, a smaller horizontal tail with integral fuel tanks and an extended tail cone. These features reduce drag, save fuel and add range.
The nonstop range of the standard MD-11 operating at a maximum takeoff weight of 602,500 pounds (273,290 kg) is approximately 7,630 statute miles (12,270 km) with 285 passengers and their bags. The extended-range version of the MD-11, equipped with an auxiliary fuel tank and operating at a higher maximum takeoff weight of 630,500 pounds (285,990 kg), has a range of approximately 8,225 statute miles (13,230 km).
Three engines -- General Electric CF6-80C2, Pratt & Whitney 4460, and Pratt & Whitney 4462 -- are offered to power the MD-11, providing maximum efficiency in their thrust class.
The advanced flight deck features six cathode ray tube displays, digital instrumentation, wind-shear detection and guidance devices, a dual flight management system that helps conserve fuel and a dual digital automatic flight control system (autopilot) with fail operational capability. Computerized system controllers perform automated normal, abnormal and emergency checklist duties for major systems, reducing flight crew requirements from three to two persons. Industry-standard interlinked wheel-and-column controls enhance crew communications and situation awareness at all times.
The MD-11 was launched on Dec. 30, 1986. Assembly of the first unit began March 9, 1988. First flight was on Jan. 10, 1990. Certification occurred Nov. 8, 1990, with first delivery on Dec. 7. For comparison, the MD-11 is 200 feet 10 inches (61.2 m) long, or 18.6 feet (5.66 m) longer than the earlier DC-10 trijet, and carries about 50 more passengers.
The MD-11 Freighter design is based on the extensive knowledge gained from experience designing and producing the DC-8, DC-10 and KC-10 freighter. The airplane is part of the advanced MD-11 wide-cabin, three-engine jetliner family produced by the Long Beach Division of Boeing Commercial Airplanes. MD-11 Freighter advantages include low cost of acquisition, extended intercontinental nonstop range, lower fuel burn per trip, unrestricted over-water operation, and up to 44 percent more below-deck revenue pallet or container cargo capacity.
In addition to modern aerodynamics, cockpit and power plants, the MD-11 freighter offers higher take-off weights, permitting increased cargo payload. The all-cargo MD-11F provides the capacity for 202,100-pound (91,670 kilograms) gross payloads and has a 98.25-inch (249.5 centimeters) maximum stack height. Located in the forward fuselage, the MD-11 cargo door is 140 inches (356 centimeters) wide by 102 inches (259 centimeters) high. The freighter's main cabin will hold up to 15,530 cubic feet (440 cubic meters) of palletized cargo. Its lower compartments will hold an additional 5,566 cubic feet (158 cubic meters) of containerized or bulk cargo. All standard industry containers can be accommodated side-by-side in the lower deck.
Genesis and Design Evolution
The McDonnell Douglas MD-11 emerged during the mid-1980s as an ambitious attempt to modernize and extend the successful DC-10 trijet design that had been in service since 1971. McDonnell Douglas faced competitive pressure from Boeing's 767 and the emerging 777 program, as well as Airbus's A330 and A340 families, which threatened to capture the long-range widebody market. The company's response was to leverage its existing DC-10 technology base while incorporating advanced materials, improved aerodynamics, and modern avionics to create an aircraft that promised significantly better performance and economics.
The MD-11 retained the DC-10's distinctive trijet configuration with two wing-mounted engines and a third engine mounted in the tail through an S-duct arrangement. This configuration, which had become increasingly rare in the industry as twin-engine reliability improved and ETOPS regulations liberalized, was maintained partly to preserve commonality with the DC-10 and partly because McDonnell Douglas believed it offered operational advantages for certain routes and operators. The fuselage was stretched by approximately 18 feet compared to the DC-10-30, increasing passenger capacity while the wing was redesigned with increased span, reduced thickness ratio, and the addition of winglets to improve aerodynamic efficiency.
Advanced composite materials were incorporated into approximately 12 percent of the aircraft's structure by weight, including the tail surfaces, control surfaces, and various fairings. The flight deck was completely redesigned around a six-screen cathode ray tube electronic flight instrument system that eliminated the flight engineer position required on the DC-10, reducing crew requirements to two pilots. The aircraft featured a digital flight control system with extensive fly-by-wire elements, though not as comprehensive as those found on contemporary Airbus designs. These systems were intended to reduce pilot workload, improve dispatch reliability, and provide better fuel economy through more precise flight path management.
Technical Specifications and Performance
The MD-11 was offered in several variants with different maximum takeoff weights and range capabilities. The baseline passenger version had a maximum takeoff weight of approximately 630,500 pounds and could carry 285 passengers in a three-class configuration or up to 410 in high-density layouts. The aircraft measured 202 feet in length with a wingspan of 169 feet, making it one of the larger widebody aircraft in service. Empty operating weight was typically around 286,000 pounds, giving the aircraft a substantial payload capacity.
The MD-11 was powered by three high-bypass turbofan engines, with customers able to select from General Electric CF6-80C2, Pratt & Whitney PW4460, or PW4462 powerplants. Each engine produced between 60,000 and 62,000 pounds of thrust, giving the aircraft strong takeoff performance and the ability to operate from hot and high airports. The trijet configuration provided redundancy that some operators valued, particularly for overwater operations before ETOPS became routine, though it also meant higher fuel consumption compared to contemporary twin-engine designs.
Maximum range for the MD-11 was initially advertised at approximately 8,000 nautical miles with a typical passenger load, though actual operational range often fell somewhat short of these projections. This range shortfall, typically around 5-8 percent below guaranteed performance, became a significant issue for several early customers and contributed to the aircraft's commercial difficulties. Cruise speed was approximately Mach 0.82, competitive with other long-range widebodies of the era. Service ceiling was 43,000 feet, and the aircraft could maintain flight on two engines or even on a single engine in certain weight and altitude conditions.
The MD-11's fuel capacity of approximately 36,700 gallons was distributed among multiple tanks in the wings, center fuselage, and horizontal stabilizer. The use of a trim tank in the horizontal stabilizer was a carryover from the DC-10 and allowed the aircraft to shift fuel aft during cruise, optimizing the center of gravity position to reduce trim drag. This system required careful management but could provide meaningful fuel savings on longer sectors when properly utilized.
Commercial Development and Market Reception
McDonnell Douglas launched the MD-11 program in December 1986 with commitments from several major carriers. The first aircraft flew in January 1990, and certification was achieved later that year with initial deliveries to launch customers beginning in late 1990 and early 1991. The timing of the MD-11's entry into service proved unfortunate, coinciding with the 1990-1991 Gulf War, subsequent recession, and a period of extreme financial stress for the global airline industry. Several customers deferred deliveries or canceled orders outright as traffic collapsed and fuel prices spiked.
More fundamentally, the MD-11 struggled to meet its performance guarantees, particularly regarding range and fuel consumption. Several airlines found that the aircraft could not operate certain advertised routes at full payload or required reduced passenger loads to achieve the necessary range. This performance shortfall damaged the aircraft's reputation and led to contentious negotiations between McDonnell Douglas and its customers. The company implemented various aerodynamic improvements and weight reduction measures throughout the production run, eventually recovering much of the promised performance, but the initial disappointment colored the aircraft's market reception.
The MD-11 also entered service at a challenging time in aviation technology evolution. ETOPS regulations were being progressively relaxed, allowing twin-engine aircraft like the Boeing 767 and later the 777 to operate over routes that previously would have required three or four engines. These twin-engine aircraft offered substantially better fuel efficiency per seat-mile, typically consuming 8-12 percent less fuel than the MD-11 on similar routes. As fuel costs remained high and environmental concerns grew, the economic disadvantage of the trijet configuration became increasingly apparent.
Despite these challenges, the MD-11 found a significant customer base among airlines seeking additional long-range capacity and those operating from airports with restrictive noise regulations where the trijet's ability to reduce thrust per engine provided advantages. American Airlines, Delta Air Lines, and Korean Air became major operators, along with several other carriers in Asia, Europe, and the Americas. Total production reached 200 aircraft, substantially below the breakeven point that industry analysts estimated at approximately 300-400 units. The production line closed in 2001, making the MD-11 one of the last commercial aircraft programs undertaken by McDonnell Douglas before its merger with Boeing in 1997.
Conversion to Freighter Operations
While the MD-11's passenger operations proved disappointing for most carriers, the aircraft found a highly successful second life as a freighter. The MD-11's large cargo capacity, intercontinental range, and relatively low acquisition costs for used airframes made it attractive for cargo operators. FedEx Express and United Parcel Service became the largest operators of converted MD-11 freighters, with fleets that eventually numbered in the dozens of aircraft each. These conversions typically involved removing passenger seats and associated systems, reinforcing the cabin floor, installing a large cargo door, and modifying the interior for containerized freight operations.
The freighter variant demonstrated several advantages in cargo operations. The trijet configuration, while inefficient for passenger airlines focused on per-seat economics, was less disadvantageous in cargo service where absolute payload capacity and operational flexibility mattered more than fuel consumption per ton-mile. The aircraft could carry approximately 200,000 pounds of cargo with sufficient fuel for transoceanic routes, making it suitable for the express package networks operated by FedEx and UPS. The MD-11F proved particularly valuable for Asian routes where large volumes of time-sensitive electronics and other high-value goods required rapid air transport to North American and European markets.
FedEx ultimately became the largest MD-11 operator worldwide, acquiring both factory-built freighters and converted passenger aircraft. The carrier developed extensive expertise in MD-11 operations and maintenance, establishing the aircraft as the backbone of its long-haul international network for more than two decades. UPS similarly relied heavily on the type for transpacific and transatlantic routes. The cargo operators found that the MD-11's cockpit commonality with the DC-10, which many had operated previously, facilitated crew training and reduced operational costs. Several passenger airlines that had retired their MD-11s for economic reasons were able to sell the airframes to cargo operators, providing some residual value for their initial investments.
The MD-11F fleet remained in service significantly longer than most passenger MD-11s, with major operators continuing to fly the type into the 2020s. However, even in cargo operations, the aircraft eventually faced retirement as more efficient twin-engine freighters became available. Boeing's 777F offered superior fuel economy and payload-range characteristics, while converted 767 and 777 passenger aircraft provided alternatives for certain missions. By the mid-2020s, both FedEx and UPS had begun accelerating MD-11 retirements as newer aircraft entered their fleets, though some MD-11Fs remained in service with smaller cargo operators.
Military Applications and Government Use
Unlike many commercial widebody aircraft, the MD-11 saw relatively limited direct military use. The United States Air Force did not acquire any MD-11s for its own operations, continuing to rely on KC-10 Extenders (based on the earlier DC-10) for aerial refueling and the C-5 Galaxy and C-17 Globemaster for strategic airlift. The lack of military procurement likely reflected the aircraft's late entry into service, when the Air Force had already established its tanker and transport fleets, as well as the MD-11's performance and economic challenges that made it less attractive than alternatives.
However, some MD-11s did operate in roles supporting military and government missions. Several air forces and governments acquired small numbers of MD-11s for VIP transport duties, recognizing the aircraft's long range and spacious cabin as suitable for executive transport. The Royal Netherlands Air Force operated several MD-11s for troop transport and VIP missions, representing one of the few military operators of the type. These aircraft provided the Dutch military with strategic airlift capability for personnel and equipment movement to support overseas deployments and humanitarian missions.
The German Air Force considered but ultimately did not acquire MD-11s for its transport fleet, opting instead for Airbus A310 and A340 aircraft. Several proposals to develop specialized military variants of the MD-11, including tanker configurations, were studied but never proceeded beyond preliminary design stages. The complexity and cost of developing military-specific systems, combined with the aircraft's uncertain commercial prospects, likely discouraged significant military investment in MD-11-based programs.
Civil Reserve Air Fleet Participation
The MD-11 has played a role in the Civil Reserve Air Fleet program, the arrangement through which the United States Department of Defense can access commercial aircraft for military airlift during national emergencies and contingencies. CRAF was established in 1952 to provide a surge airlift capability that supplements the military's organic transport fleet during large-scale deployments or crises. Airlines volunteer aircraft for CRAF participation in exchange for peacetime military charter business and priority consideration for defense contracts.
Several U.S. carriers that operated passenger MD-11s enrolled portions of their fleets in CRAF during the 1990s and 2000s. American Airlines, Delta Air Lines, and World Airways were among the operators that committed MD-11s to the program at various stages. These aircraft would have been available for activation during CRAF Stage II or Stage III mobilizations, which occur during defense-oriented emergency conditions or when national defense requirements exceed organic military airlift capability. The MD-11's long range and substantial passenger capacity made it suitable for strategic troop movements and medical evacuation missions that CRAF aircraft typically perform.
CRAF aircraft remain under commercial operator control even when activated, with civilian crews flying the missions under Department of Defense tasking. The aircraft retain their civil registrations and operate under Federal Aviation Administration regulations rather than military flight rules. This arrangement allows the government to access substantial commercial airlift capacity without bearing the full costs of maintaining a large military transport fleet, while providing airlines with guaranteed peacetime charter revenue and the ability to maintain their aircraft in operational condition.
The actual activation of MD-11s under CRAF was relatively limited compared to some other aircraft types. The program was activated only twice between its establishment and the mid-2020s: during Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm in 1990-1991, and following the September 11, 2001 attacks for Operations Enduring Freedom and Iraqi Freedom. During these activations, widebody aircraft including some MD-11s flew thousands of troops and millions of pounds of cargo to support military operations. The aircraft typically operated transoceanic routes from continental U.S. bases to European staging areas or directly to the Middle East, providing the rapid deployment capability that CRAF was designed to deliver.
As passenger MD-11s were retired from U.S. airline service during the 2000s and 2010s, the type's presence in CRAF diminished correspondingly. The program increasingly relied on Boeing 767s, 777s, and later 787s, along with Airbus A330s and A350s, which offered better fuel efficiency and were available in larger numbers. The cargo variant MD-11Fs operated by FedEx and UPS also participated in CRAF through separate cargo-focused segments of the program, providing dedicated freighter capacity for military logistics when activated. These cargo CRAF missions typically involved moving military equipment, spare parts, and supplies rather than personnel, complementing the passenger airlift provided by other aircraft types.
Operational Experience and Safety Record
The MD-11's operational history includes both significant successes and notable challenges. The aircraft proved generally reliable in day-to-day service, with dispatch reliability comparable to other widebody types once initial teething problems were resolved. Pilots typically praised the spacious cockpit and advanced avionics, though the aircraft gained a reputation for requiring careful handling, particularly during approach and landing. The MD-11's relaxed longitudinal stability, implemented to reduce cruise drag, made the aircraft more sensitive to pilot inputs and environmental disturbances than some other designs.
Several accidents and incidents involving MD-11s raised questions about the aircraft's handling characteristics. Multiple landing accidents occurred in which aircraft bounced during touchdown and sustained substantial damage or departed the runway. Investigators identified pilot technique issues in several cases but also noted that the MD-11's flight control system and aerodynamic characteristics could contribute to pilot-induced oscillations during landing. McDonnell Douglas and later Boeing issued various service bulletins and training guidance intended to address these concerns, emphasizing specific techniques for MD-11 approaches and landings.
The most serious MD-11 accident occurred in September 1998 when Swissair Flight 111 crashed into the Atlantic Ocean off Nova Scotia, killing all 229 people aboard. The investigation determined that an in-flight fire, likely originating in the entertainment system wiring above the cockpit, spread rapidly through flammable materials in the aircraft's structure. This accident was not related to fundamental MD-11 design issues but rather to materials selection and installation practices that were later corrected across the fleet. The accident led to significant changes in aircraft flammability requirements and in-flight fire response procedures throughout the industry.
Overall, the MD-11's safety record, while including several serious accidents, was broadly comparable to other large commercial jets when adjusted for exposure. The aircraft's trijet configuration provided redundancy that proved valuable in several emergencies where engine failures or other malfunctions occurred. As the MD-11 fleet aged and many aircraft transitioned to cargo service, operators accumulated extensive experience with the type's maintenance requirements and operational characteristics, generally reporting satisfactory long-term reliability.
Technical Legacy and Industry Impact
The MD-11 program represents a significant case study in aircraft development and commercial aviation economics. The aircraft demonstrated both the possibilities and limitations of evolutionary development from existing designs. McDonnell Douglas sought to leverage DC-10 technology and production infrastructure to compete with all-new designs from Boeing and Airbus, accepting the compromises inherent in adapting an older design rather than pursuing a clean-sheet development. This approach reduced development costs and risks but ultimately could not overcome the fundamental efficiency advantages of more modern twin-engine configurations.
The MD-11's technological innovations, including its advanced flight deck, digital flight controls, and extensive use of composite materials, represented genuine progress and influenced subsequent aircraft designs. However, these improvements were applied to a basic airframe and engine configuration that was increasingly obsolete in the rapidly evolving long-range aircraft market. The experience highlighted the challenges facing established manufacturers attempting to compete with limited resources against better-capitalized rivals offering fundamentally more efficient designs.
The aircraft's commercial disappointment contributed to McDonnell Douglas's diminishing position in the civil aviation market and was among the factors that led to the company's merger with Boeing in 1997. The closure of the MD-11 production line in 2001 marked the end of McDonnell Douglas's legacy as an independent commercial aircraft manufacturer, with no MD-designated aircraft entering production thereafter. The MD-11 thus occupies a significant place in aviation history as the last major commercial aircraft developed by one of the industry's pioneering companies.
Despite its commercial challenges, the MD-11's success in cargo operations demonstrates the complexity of aircraft economics and the importance of matching aircraft capabilities to specific mission requirements. An aircraft that struggled in passenger service, where per-seat-mile costs dominated airline decision-making, thrived in cargo operations where absolute payload capacity and operational flexibility were paramount. This distinction illustrates how different market segments value aircraft characteristics differently and how specialized operators can extract value from designs that mainstream passenger carriers find uneconomical.
Contemporary Status and Future Prospects
As of the mid-2020s, the MD-11 fleet had contracted substantially from its peak. Most passenger MD-11s had been retired, with surviving examples concentrated in freighter service with cargo operators. FedEx Express remained the largest operator, though it was progressively retiring MD-11s as Boeing 767Fs and 777Fs entered service. UPS had accelerated its MD-11 phase-out, with the type largely withdrawn from the fleet. Several smaller cargo operators and charter carriers continued to fly MD-11s, finding opportunities in secondary markets where the aircraft's lower acquisition costs offset its higher operating expenses.
The MD-11's retirement trajectory was driven by multiple factors including fuel costs, environmental regulations, and maintenance economics. Modern twin-engine freighters offered fuel savings of approximately 15-20 percent compared to the MD-11, a difference that became increasingly important as fuel prices rose and environmental regulations tightened. Older MD-11s required escalating maintenance as airframes accumulated flight hours and cycles, with structural inspections and component replacements becoming more frequent and costly. Noise regulations at various airports also limited where MD-11s could operate, particularly for nighttime cargo flights that were essential to express package operators' business models.
Some observers have noted that the MD-11's retirement pace accelerated during the early 2020s compared to earlier projections. The COVID-19 pandemic disrupted cargo markets and airline operations generally, leading some operators to accelerate fleet retirements and rationalize their aircraft types. The economic recovery that followed saw surge demand for cargo capacity, but operators generally chose to meet this demand with more efficient aircraft rather than extending MD-11 service. By late 2024 and 2025, the global MD-11 fleet numbered perhaps three or four dozen aircraft in active service, compared to more than 180 at the type's peak operational presence.
The prospect of MD-11s operating into the 2030s appears limited. Most remaining aircraft were delivered in the 1990s and have accumulated substantial service time. The economics of continuing to operate these aging trijets appear increasingly unfavorable as more efficient alternatives become available. Some aircraft may find extended service with smaller operators in developing markets where lower acquisition costs and less stringent regulatory environments provide opportunities, but even these niches appear likely to shrink as aircraft age further and parts availability becomes more challenging.
The MD-11's retirement will mark the end of an era in commercial aviation, closing the chapter on large trijet designs that were once common in long-haul service. The DC-10/KC-10 family will likely remain in limited military service longer than the MD-11 due to the Air Force's continued operation of KC-10 tankers, though these too are scheduled for retirement in favor of KC-46 and KC-135 replacements. The MD-11's legacy will persist in aviation museums where several examples have been or will be preserved, and in the memories of pilots, mechanics, and passengers who experienced the distinctive trijet during its three decades of commercial service.
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