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First Nicaragua Campaign - 1909-1925

Due to differences over an isthmian canal and concessions to Americans in Nicaragua as well as a concern for what was perceived as Nicaragua's destabilizing influence in the region, in 1909 the United States provided political support to Conservative-led forces rebelling against President José Santos Zelaya and intervened militarily to protect American lives and property. Zelaya resigned later that year. With the exception of a nine-month period in 1925-26, the United States maintained troops in Nicaragua from 1912 until 1933.

American direct investment in Nicaragua totaled approximately $15,000,000, which was less than in any other of the Latin American countries except Ecuador and Paraguay. Of this amount more than seven-eighths is located in the fruit, lumbering, and mining enterprises of the Caribbean littoral. The fruit and lumber companies in some cases have their own railroads and wharves. The approximately $2,000,000 of American capital in western Nicaragua is invested in coffee and cotton plantations, mines, and the public utilities in Managua.

The political history of Central America can be explained largely by localismo, the tendency toward the national supremacy of a city, and personalismo, the political adherence to a leader. In Nicaragua this is especially true, because both localismo and personalismo reach their most complete development. When the dominant Conservative group split in 1893, the Liberals quickly and successfully revolted. Their leader was José Santos Zelaya, who ruled the country with an iron hand for the next 17 years. Despite a progressive policy in extending the railway and steamship service, in developing the coffee industry, and in increasing educational opportunities, Zelaya exploited Nicaragua to a degree theretofore unparalled. He fostered monopolies, which brought a tribute from practically every form of commercial activity, and he sold vast concessions of enterprises and land to unscrupulous promoters, both native and foreign, which were prejudicial to public interest. He inflated the currency by emitting about 12,000,000 pesos of paper notes for which there was no gold or silver reserve. He violated personal and private property rights, inflicting the most brutal treatment upon his enemies.

It was Zelaya's intermeddling with the other countries of Central America that aroused concern in the United States. In order to put an end to the continual warfare that existed from 1902 to 1907, the United States and Mexico called a conference at Washington in 1907. At this conference the five republics of Central America signed a series of conventions, in which they agreed as one of the first duties in their mutual relations to avoid revolution and to remain neutral in case of civil war in one of the other republics. During the next two years, Zelaya violated these conventions by his attempts to force the restoration of the old Central American Union. The Governments of Costa Rica, El Salvador, and Guatemala protested to the United States.

In October, 1909, a revolution against Zelaya broke out on the east coast. It was partially financed and supplied by the other countries of Central America and by foreigners whose interest had recently been prejudiced by certain inimical concessions. The Conservative Party, which sponsored the revolution, set up a government at Bluefields under the provisional presidency of Juan J. Estrada, the Liberal Governor of the province.

Although the relations between the United States and Nicaragua had been strained by a prolonged dispute over the so-called Emery Claim, which had culminated in the withdrawal of the American Minister, the United States remained neutral. However, in November, 1909, the execution by President Zelaya of two American soldiers of fortune, Cannon and Groce, who held commissions in the revolutionary army, precipitated a crisis. In a note of December 1, 1909, to the Nicaraguan Chargé d'Affaires, the United States broke off diplomatic relations, stating "under the régime of President Zelaya republican institutions have ceased in Nicaragua to exist except in name; that public opinion and the press have been throttled; and that prison has been the reward of any tendency to real patriotism.... The Government of the United States is convinced that the revolution represents the ideals and the will of a majority of the Nicaraguan people more faithfully than does the Government of President Zelaya, and that its peaceable control is well-nigh as extensive as that hitherto so sternly attempted by the government at Managua."

A US Marine Corps Expeditionary Regiment, 32 officers, 709 enlisted men, under command Col. James E. Mahoney, sailed on Prairie from Philadelphia, Pa., December 2, 1909, transferred to Dixie, December 5, 1909, arriving at Christobal, Canal Zone, December 12. Disembarked at Christobal same date, reembarked on Buffalo and proceeding to Corinto, Nicaragua, arriving December 20, 1909, remaining until March 15, 1910. Regiment returned to Balboa, Canal Zone, on Buffalo, disembarking on March 23, 1910, and going into camp at Las Cascadas, Canal Zone, remaining until April 14, 1910, when it embarked on Prairie and left for United States, arriving at Philadelphia, Pa., April 25, 1910. A second expeditionary regiment, 30 officers and 712 enlisted men, under command of Lieut. Col. Eli K. Cole, sailed from Philadelphia, Pa., on Prairie, December 14, 1909, arriving Canal Zone, December 24, where it was disembarked and took station at Camp Elliott, Canal Zone, remaining until April 14, 1910, when it embarked, with the exception of 3 officers and 200 men, on the Prairie, and sailed for the United States, arriving at Philadelphia, Pa., April 25. Three officers and 200 men embarked on Buffalo on April 13, 1910, arriving at Mare Island, Cal., May 5, 1910.

When his subsequent attempts to reach an understanding with the United States failed, President Zelaya resigned, depositing the Presidency in Dr. José Madriz, a distinguished Liberal of León. Despite his nonrecognition by the United States, Madriz not only managed to maintain his régime but drove the forces of General Estrada into Bluefields, where he besieged them. Toward the blockade of the city by Madriz, the United States held that “if the announced blockade . . . was effectively maintained and the requirements of international law, including warning to approaching vessels, were observed, the United States Government would not be disposed to interfere to prevent its enforcement”. However, President Madriz complained that the United States naval vessels prevented the blockading activities of a Nicaraguan ship that had arrived fully armed after sailing from New Orleans under the guise of a merchantman.

Failing to capture Bluefields, the Madriz troops were unable to maintain themselves in that region and were forced to retire. General Estrada immediately launched a successful counteroffensive. On August 21, 1910, the day after Madriz left Managua, General Estrada assumed control of the Government. The revolution which started at Bluefields, though led by a discontented Liberal, General Estrada, had the body of its support among the Conservatives. General Estrada had been accepted by the latter only because by his duplicity the garrison at Bluefields had been turned over to the revolutionists, a preliminary necessary to any successful uprising.

Bluefields; principal port of entry on Atlantic coast, near mouth of Bluefields River, in Bluefields Lagoon; the population was around 4,000 in the early 20th century. From Bluefields small vessels carried on a coasting trade with other points on the east coast of Nicaragua. Each week a steamer ran up the Bluefields River to Rama, a trading port, a distance of 65 miles (100 km.). From this point transportation was also undertaken to the interior by canoes and small schooners. The actual port is El Bluff, 6 miles from the city. Bluefields was a very good business port, and there are some important houses here. It is best reached direct from New Orleans. About 75 per cent of the import and export trade of the Atlantic coast is handled through this port, the chief item being bananas.

A Battalion of 6 officers and 200 enlisted men under command Maj. Smedley D. Butler, embarked on Dubuque, 29 May 1910, and proceeded to Bluefields, Nicaragua; remaining at Bluefields guarding American interests until September 4, 1910, when it returned to Camp Elliott, Panama.

During the spring, the political situation became more acute. Although Diaz was the nominal head of the Government, General Mena was the real power. He had the complete support of the Army and controlled the Constituent Assembly. General Mena, after cutting the electric-light wires in Managua, fled in open revolt to Masaya. The revolution was joined by a large body of Liberals under the leadership of General Zeledón, formerly Minister of War under Zelaya. The Liberals of León revolted and took over the city, which became a focal point for the revolution.

Shortly after the outbreak of the revolution led by General Mena, American and other foreign property was seized by the revolutionists and the lives of American citizens threatened. The Department of State immediately asked President Diaz for protection. President Diaz replied that his Government was unable to comply with this request, adding “in consequence my Government desires that the Government of the United States guarantee with its forces security for the property of American citizens in Nicaragua and that it extend its protection to all the inhabitants of the Republic.”

Some 360 United States marines were sent to open the railway communciations from Corinto to Managua. A Legation guard at Managua of 100 men had been landed on 04 August 1912. The pronouncement sounded the end of the revolution. General Mena, who had fallen ill after the outbreak, soon surrendered. Zeledon, who had taken up a position in the Barranca Fort overlooking Masaya, refused to surrender. United States marines stormed and captured the fort. Shortly afterwards, with the surrender of León, the revolution came to an end. It had cost the Nicaraguan Government about $2,000,000 to suppress the revolution which once again imperiled the Republic's financial position. In suppressing the revolution, seven American marines and bluejackets lost their lives. Thenceforth the United the United States retained at Managua a Legation guard of approximately 130 men.

A Battalion consisting of 10 officers and 338 enlisted men transferred to Nicaragua from Camp Elliott, Panama, for temporary duty. August 24, 1912. A Provision Regiment consisting of 29 officers and 750 enlisted men under command of Col. Joseph H. Pendleton, assembled, embarked and sailed from Philadelphia, Pa., on Prairie, for service in Nicaragua. The regiment was augmented from time to time by detachments of sailors and marines from the California, Colorado, Cleveland, Denver and Tacoma during the hostilities in Nicaragua.