Military

STEP 1. Receive the mission.

STEP 2. Issue a warning order.

STEP 3. Make a tentative plan.

STEP 4. Start necessary movement.

STEP 5. Reconnoiter.

STEP 6. Complete the plan.

STEP 7. Issue the complete order.

STEP 8. Supervise.

(1) The leader should use no more than one third of the available time for his own planning and for issuing his operation order. The remaining two thirds is for subordinates to plan and prepare for the operation. Leaders should also consider other factors such as available daylight and travel time to and from orders and rehearsals.

(2) In scheduling preparation activities, the leader should work backwards from the LD or defend time. This is reverse planning. He must allow enough time for the completion of each task.

(1) Mission. The leader considers his mission as given to him by his commander. He analyzes it in light of the commander's intent two command levels higher, and he derives the essential tasks his platoon must perform in order to accomplish the mission.

(2) Enemy. The leader considers the type, size, organization, tactics, and equipment of the enemy he expects to encounter. He identifies the enemy's, strengths and weaknesses.

(3) Terrain. The leader considers the effect of terrain and weather on enemy and friendly forces using the guidelines below (OAKOC):

(4) Troops available. The leader considers the strength of squads, the characteristics of his weapon systems, and the capabilities of attached elements as he assigns tasks to squads and sections.

(5) Time available. The leader refines his allocation of time based on his mission and reverse planning sequence and all other known deadlines.

(1) To aid subordinates in understanding the concept for the mission, leaders should issue the order within sight of the objective or on the terrain to be defended. A terrain model or sketch is always helpful.

(2) Leaders must ensure that subordinates understand the mission, the commander's intent two levels up, the concept of the operation, and their assigned tasks. Leaders may require subordinates to repeat all or part of the order or demonstrate on the model or sketch their understanding of the operation. Leaders should also quiz their soldiers to ensure that all soldiers understand the mission. Chapter 4 provides a list of questions that leaders can ask their soldiers to determine their understanding.

(1) Rehearsals. If possible, leaders should conduct rehearsals on terrain that resembles the actual ground and in similar light conditions. The platoon may begin rehearsals of battle drills and other SOP items before the receipt of the operation order. Once the order has been issued, the platoon can rehearse mission-specific tasks. The leader uses rehearsals to--

• Practice essential tasks (improve performance).
• Reveal weaknesses or problems in the plan.
• Coordinate the actions of subordinate elements.
• Improve soldier understanding of the concept of the operation (foster confidence in soldiers).

The types of rehearsals are briefback, reduced force, and full force. There are many different techniques available to accomplish these rehearsals. Some important tasks to rehearse include actions in the assembly area, actions before LD, actions en route to the assault position or objective, actions in the assault position, actions on the objective, and actions during consolidation and reorganization on the objective.

(2) Techniques of rehearsal. The techniques are as follows.

(3) Inspections. Section and squad leaders should conduct initial inspections shortly after receipt of the warning order. The platoon sergeant spot-checks throughout the platoon's preparation for combat. The platoon leader and platoon sergeant make a final inspection. They should inspect--

• Weapons and ammunition.
• Uniforms and equipment.
• Mission-essential equipment.
• Soldier's understanding of the mission and their specific responsibilities.
• Communications.
• Rations and water.
• Camouflage.
• Deficiencies noted during earlier inspections.

(1) Concept sketch. A concept sketch should include the task and purpose. The sketch shows the locations and positions of objectives, control measures, and key terrain in relation to each other. It is not necessarily drawn to scale. Example battalion, company, and platoon concept sketches are in Figures 2-6, 2-7, 2-8, and 2-9.

(2) Terrain model. A terrain model is a three-dimensional scale model of the terrain (Figure 2-10). It is effective for briefing and discussing the actions on the objective. It may depict the entire mission area. However, for offense missions, priority should be given to building a model of the objective area.

(1) Destroy the most dangerous targets first. The danger an enemy vehicle or weapon system presents to the squad or platoon changes with range, terrain, and the weapons mounted on the vehicle. Generally, tanks present the greatest threat to BFVs at ranges out to 2,000 meters. However, Soviet tanks equipped with missiles can engage BFVs up to 4 kilometers away. At ranges greater than 2,000 meters, a BRDM or a BMP firing an ATGM presents a greater threat. A BMP that is moving does not present a meaningful threat until it moves within 1,000 meters. An RPG team is a threat within 300 meters. Targets are engaged in direct relation to the danger they present. If two or more targets are equal threats, the closest one should be engaged first.

(2) Avoid target overkill. A force fighting outnumbered cannot afford to engage a single target with more than one weapon. Bradley commanders strive for single engagements and one-shot kills with the TOW, and single-round ranging shots and short-burst kills with the 25-mm gun. Bradley commanders must avoid engaging disabled vehicles. Such targets should be left for tanks or other weapon systems with a larger basic load of ammunition and more destructive power or engaged after other, more dangerous targets have been destroyed.

(3) Concentrate on long-range targets. The fire team weapons also complement the BFV's weapons. The machine guns, rifles, grenade launcher, AT4, and Dragon are best used along more restrictive approaches where fields of fire are limited. This allows the BFV to concentrate on long-range targets.

(4) Control fires to achieve the best shots and expose only those BFVs needed for an engagement. The leader uses the BFV that has the best chance of engaging and destroying the enemy. All other vehicles should remain hidden until additional targets are within the engagement area, the firing BFV needs help in destroying the target, or they are needed to provide cover for withdrawal action.

(5) Use each weapon in its best role. Each BFV weapon has its own capabilities and limitations. Each is used in roles for which it is best suited and how it best complements the other weapons.

(6) Maintain combat loads as long as possible. Ammunition resupply is a major problem on the battlefield. Without proper fire discipline, a BFV can use its entire combat load in one or two engagements and then be ineffective in later encounters. Crews must constantly check the on-board supply of ammunition. Ammunition reporting procedures should be established as SOP. The platoon leader should prescribe how low on ammunition the platoon, sections, or squads can get before requesting resupply. Elements should not be allowed to drop below this level except in a combat emergency. To reduce reloading time, ammunition in the ready racks is replaced at every chance.

(7) Avoid fratricide. When possible, crews avoid engagements that are close to friendly infantry or vehicles. BFV crews must remain aware of the movement of the dismounted element to avoid casualties from friendly fires. Additionally, infantry squads must establish measures to keep the BFV crews aware of their location.

(1) Individual BFVs. Threat armored vehicles have more armor in the front 60-degree arc of the vehicle than on the flanks and rear portions. Thus, the leaders must understand fighting positions' effectiveness against the Threat (for example, flank shots and close combat techniques).

(2) Section/wingman concept. A Bradley section consists of the platoon leader and a wingman or platoon sergeant and a wingman. The wingman concept helps in the command and control of the platoon. Platoon/section SOPs dictate the engagement and firing techniques to be used by sections. Whether the sections fire together or alternate fires, mutual support is provided. Sections always operate as part of a platoon.

(3) Squads. The dismount element consists of two 9-man squads with two squad leaders and four fire team leaders. The platoon leader normally operates on the ground with the dismounted squads.

(4) Platoons. In mechanized infantry forces, the Bradley platoon is the lowest level employed to conduct operations.

(1) Methods of fire control. The methods of fire control are sound signals, graphic control measures, visual signals, and time.

(2) Fire commands. Leaders use fire commands to direct the fires of the unit. A fire command has the following six elements.

(3) Methods of fire distribution. Leaders must distribute the fires of their organic weapons to destroy or suppress enemy positions. There are two ways to distribute fire on a target--point fire and area fire.

(4) Fire patterns. The three basic fire patterns are frontal fire, cross fire, and depth fire. They are used to distribute the platoon's fire when multiple targets appear and no other measures have been assigned or in conjunction with other measures.

(1) Dragon. There are two options for the employment of Dragons in the mechanized infantry platoon--centralized or decentralized.

(2) LAW and AT4. The four methods of engaging targets with both the LAW and the AT4 are single, sequence, pair, and volley firing.

(1) Terrain. In planning a movement, leaders consider the terrain from the aspect OAKOC as discussed in Section I. Leaders look for terrain that avoids obstacles, provides protection from direct and indirect fires and from ground and aerial observation, avoids key terrain that may be occupied by the enemy, allows freedom to maneuver, and avoids natural lines of drift or obvious terrain features. If key terrain cannot be avoided, leaders plan to reconnoiter it before moving through. When operating as an advance or flank guard for a larger force, platoons and squads may be tasked to occupy key terrain for a short time while the main body bypasses it.

(2) Formations and movement techniques. Formations and movement techniques provide security by--

• Positioning each vehicle and soldier so that they can observe and fire into a specific sector that overlaps with other sectors.
• Placing a team or section forward to allow the platoon to make contact with only the lead team and give the remainder of the platoon freedom to maneuver.
• Providing overwatch for a portion of the platoon.

In selecting formations and movement techniques, leaders must consider other requirements such as speed and control as well as security. See Section III for information on determining the best formation and technique based on METT-T

(3) Security at danger areas. Paragraph 2-10 describes actions taken by platoons and squads to secure danger areas before crossing them.

(4) Camouflage, noise, light, litter and radiotelephone discipline. Leaders must ensure that camouflage used by their platoon is appropriate to the terrain and season. Platoon SOPs specify elements of noise, light, litter, and radiotelephone discipline. (See Chapter 4.)

(1) Column. The column formation is used for road marches, for movement during limited visibility, and when passing through defiles or other restrictive terrain. (Figure 2-20.) The column simplifies control, provides good security, and permits maximum firepower to the flanks.

(2) Line. The line formation is used when assaulting a weakly defended objective, crossing open areas, or in a support-by-fire position. (Figure-21.) This formation provides maximum fire to the front. The distance between elements depends on terrain.

(3) Echelon. The echelon formation permits excellent firepower to the front and to either the right or left flank. (Figure 2-22.) It is normally used when a platoon is to cover an exposed flank of a larger force.

(4) Wedge. The wedge formation permits excellent firepower to the front and good fire to each flank. (Figure 2-23.) The wedge formation is often used when the enemy situation is vague.

(5) Herringbone. The herringbone is used to disperse the platoon when traveling in column formation. (Figure 2-24.) It may be used during air attacks or when the platoon must stop during movement. It lets the platoon move to covered and concealed positions off a road or from an open area and establish all-round security without detailed instructions being issued. The vehicles are repositioned as necessary to take advantage of the best cover, concealment, and fields of fire. Fire team members dismount and establish security.

(6) Coil. The coil is used to provide all-round security and observation when the platoon is stationary. (Figure 2-25.) It also is useful for tactical refueling, resupply, and issuing platoon orders. Security is posted to include airguards and dismounted fire teams. The vehicle turrets are manned.

(1) Fire team formations. Fire team formations describe the positioning of soldiers in relation to each other. Each formation has advantages and disadvantages. The leader must weigh these in light of his METT-T analysis. (Table 2-1.)

(2) Squad formations. Squad formations describe the relationships between fire teams in the squad. They include the squad column, squad line, and squad file. A comparison of the formations is in Table 2-2.

(3) Platoon formations. The platoon uses the column or line formations. (Figures 2-31 and 2-32.)

(1) Traveling. Traveling is used when contact with the enemy is not likely and speed is needed (Figure 2-33.)

(2) Traveling overwatch. Traveling overwatch is used when contact is possible. A platoon in traveling overwatch may move in a column, wedge, or echelon formation with turrets oriented into assigned sectors of responsibility. (Figure 2-34.) (As noted earlier, the platoon should move mounted in sections--one under the platoon leader's control, the other controlled by the platoon sergeant.)

(3) Bounding overwatch. Bounding overwatch is used when contact is expected. Platoons execute bounding overwatch in alternate or successive bounds. (Figure 2-35.) Platoons use alternate bounds when speed is important and when terrain is open. They use successive bounds to move deliberately or when terrain is restrictive.

(1) Traveling. This technique is not used often when contact is not likely, because the platoon normally remains mounted. (Figure 2-37.) Sometimes the platoon has missions that require the dismount element to operate independent of the BFVs. The traveling technique is normal for trailing platoon dismounted elements in a company dismounted formation. The element's formation is adjusted to fit the situation.

(2) Traveling overwatch. The dismount element normally uses a column or wedge formation. The lead team tries to move at least 50 meters, but preferably 100 meters or more, in front of the rest of the element. The BFVs may be even farther to the rear or to a flank. (Figure 2-38.)

(3) Bounding overwatch. When contact is expected and the terrain does not permit mounted movement or when the dismount element is separated from the vehicles, the platoon (-) bounds with the dismount element deployed. (Figure 2-39.)

(4) Movement during limited visibility conditions. At night or when visibility is poor, a platoon must be able to function the same as during day. It must be able to control, navigate, maintain security, and move at night or during limited visibility.

(1) Movement with armored vehicles. For a detailed discussion of BFV and tank operations, see Section IX.

(2) Movement by water. Platoons avoid crossing water obstacles when possible. Leaders should identify weak or nonswimmers when crossing water in BFV and pair them with a good swimmer in their crew/squad.

(1) Because the enemy situation is vague, the platoon must be prepared to act in any situation. This is accomplished by proper planning, war-gaming, using appropriate movement formations and techniques, using fire control measures, using platoon SOPs, using engagement criteria, and studying the terrain before and during movement to anticipate likely enemy locations. While moving, all leaders study the terrain and anticipate enemy contact and what actions to take. (Figure 2-42.)

(2) Because the platoon leader does not know when or where he will make contact with the enemy, he should avoid mounted movement on terrain that restricts maneuver such as draws, ravines, narrow trails, or steep slopes. The platoon leader must also consider the speed at which the commander expects him to move when selecting his route. If restrictive terrain is unavoidable, the platoon leader will consider alternative techniques to enhance security, for example, dismount a squad or fire team to conduct a movement through the restrictive area in advance of the vehicles.

(3) A line of departure, phase lines, and checkpoints are normally assigned to control the forward movement of the company or company team. The platoon leader may be required to report these graphic control measures to the commander. The platoon does not stop at a phase line unless told to do so. If necessary, the platoon leader may designate additional phase lines or checkpoints for internal platoon use to reduce the number and length of radio transmissions used to control movement.

(4) Fire control and distribution are accomplished through the use of boundaries, fire plans, pyrotechnics, and weapons-ready posture. It takes on added importance in the movement to contact because of the scarcity of information about the enemy. The weapons-ready posture must be flexible enough to respond to an unclear enemy situation, and it will vary between the bounding and overwatching elements. It is critical in BFV-equipped platoons because of the variety of weapons that can be controlled from the turret and the dangers of expending all of the on-board ammunition of a weapon within the platoon.

(5) Without instructions the forward observer must, based on spot reports or observation, inform the platoon leader that he is ready to adjust indirect fires. This must be an automatic response. The mounted (during mounted movement, the platoon leader adjusts indirect fires) and dismounted elements must both have this capability.

(6) If there is no platoon FO, the platoon leader must still have a good indirect fire plan for his route to cover anticipated places of contact. These targets are reasoned from the platoon leader's wargaming process and incorporated into the company plan. With no FO, the platoon leader should initiate the call for fires on the command net, with the FIST leader eavesdropping. The FIST leader generates the immediate or preplanned mission. The adjustment process can be done via alternate methods.

(7) Air guards are critical in a movement to contact. If the cargo hatch is open, an air-guard can be designated to watch the sides and rear; the front view is blocked by the turret. The Bradley commander in one or more of the BFVs must act as an air guard oriented to the front.

(8) Once the platoon makes contact with the enemy, it is maintained until the commander orders otherwise. The platoon leader develops the situation based on effectiveness of enemy fire, friendly casualties, size of enemy force, and freedom to maneuver. He gathers and reports critical information about the enemy and recommends a course of action. There are several options the commander and the platoon leader can execute once contact is made. The platoon could bypass the enemy with permission from the commander, conduct a hasty attack, fix the enemy so another platoon can conduct the assault, or conduct a hasty defense or establish a hasty ambush. (Figure 2-43.) The following are guidelines which can be used for planning and when contact is made to develop the situation.

(9) Light resistance may be bypassed IAW the OPORD or when directed by the commander. Once the platoon reacts to contact and the decision has been made to bypass, the following actions occur. (Figure 2-44.)

• BFVs suppress on the move.
• Infantry remains mounted.
• Platoon leader calls for and adjusts indirect fire and smoke to screen his movement past the enemy position.
• Platoon leader reports the size and the location of the enemy to the company/team commander, and the platoon continues the mission.

(10) Once the platoon reacts to contact and the decision is made to conduct a hasty attack, the actions of the platoon are as follows:

(11) If a bypass or hasty attack is not possible, the platoon may be instructed to fix the enemy. Fixing the enemy involves establishing a base of fire to suppress the enemy and keep him from repositioning any part of his force for use elsewhere. (Figure 2-47.) When enemy resistance is too heavy for the platoon to assault, or a hasty attack has failed, the actions of the platoon are as follows.

(1) If the platoon is hit by indirect fire en route, it moves quickly out of the area. If the platoon meets enemy resistance short of the objective, platoons, squads, or sections initiate the attack. The platoon leader can have the FO call for and adjust indirect fire on the enemy. Depending on the place, the type of resistance, and the company plan, the platoon might be ordered to bypass enemy soldiers who cannot affect the mission. The platoon reports locations of all bypassed enemy to the company commander.

(2) The platoon bypasses or breaches obstacles along the route. The platoon leader decides how to best overcome the obstacle without losing the momentum of the attack. He informs the company of obstacles that can affect follow-on platoons.

(1) Ideally, the platoon's assault element occupies the assault position without the enemy detecting any of the platoon's elements. If so, the platoon can still achieve surprise. Preparations in the assault position may include preparing bangalores, other breaching equipment, or demolitions; fixing bayonets; lifting or shifting fires; or preparing smoke pots.

(2) If the platoon is detected, as the platoon nears the assault position, the FO increases the indirect fires on the objective. The support element also increases its volume of fire. The platoon occupies the assault position if there are any last-minute preparations required. If the platoon does not need to stop, it passes through the assault position and assaults the objective. A platoon sometimes must halt to complete preparation and to ensure synchronization of all friendly forces. Once the assault element moves forward of the assault position, the assault must continue. If stopped or turned back, the assault element could sustain excessive casualties.

(3) Supporting fire must continue to suppress the enemy and must be closely controlled to prevent fratricide. At times, the assault element may mark each soldier or just the team on the flank nearest the support element. The assaulting soldiers and the support element sustain a high rate of fire to suppress the enemy. The company commander shifts or lifts indirect fire when it endangers the advancing soldiers. He coordinates this with the platoons' assaults. As the fire of the platoon's support element is masked, the platoon leader shifts or lifts it or displaces the vehicles/weapons to a position where continuous fire can be maintained.

(1) Assaulting mounted. Assaulting mounted is only conducted against light resistance or when there are no heavy antiarmor weapons on the objective.

(2) Assaulting dismounted. During a dismounted assault, the mounted element, under the control of the platoon sergeant, provides a base of fire to support the dismounted element's assault onto the objective. If terrain does not support the BFV providing a base of fire for the dismounted assault, the platoon leader can use the M249s in the machine gun role as a dismounted base of fire. (See Appendix D for more details.) If an assault position has been designated, the dismount element uses it to deploy. As little time as possible is spent in the assault position and the deployment into the assault formation should be made as rapidly as possible.

(1) The platoon leader receives the company warning or operation order.

(2) The platoon leader quickly issues a warning order.

(3) The platoon leader begins making a tentative plan.

(4) When possible, the platoon leader (and squad leaders and Bradley commanders) reconnoiter the defensive position and the route(s) to it. At a minimum, a map reconnaissance should be made.

(5) Based on his reconnaissance and any additional information, the platoon leader completes and issues his plan.

(6) The platoon sergeant ensures that all squad and section leaders check weapons, communications equipment, accessories for missing items and serviceability, preventive maintenance checks and services (PMCS) (the platoon leader spot-checks).

(7) The platoon sergeant makes sure that the platoon has POL, ammunition, food, water, and medical supplies on hand, in quantities prescribed by the platoon leader. (Squads and platoons should plan to prestock an additional basic load of ammunition on the defensive position.)

(8) All soldiers camouflage themselves, their equipment, and vehicles to blend with the terrain.

(9) The platoon rehearses applicable drills and tasks.

(10) The platoon leader makes final inspection of weapons (bore sight, zero, and test fires weapons, if possible), equipment (include communications checks), and personnel (include camouflage).

(11) If an advance party is used, the platoon leader, platoon sergeant, and advance party leader (normally a squad leader) review advance party activities and redistribute equipment to the advance party (for example, tripods, stakes).

(12) If not already moving, the platoon leader initiates the movement of his platoon.

(1) Do not move vehicles directly forward from covered and concealed positions.

(2) Move on covered and concealed routes.

(3) Avoid likely ambush sites.

(4) Enforce camouflage, noise, light, radiotelephone, and litter discipline.

(5) Maintain all-round security, to include air guards.

(6) Use formations and movement techniques based on METT-T.

(1) The platoon leader, squad leaders (Bradley commanders, if possible), and a security element conduct a leader's reconnaissance. The reconnaissance party enters the position from the rear.

(2) The platoon occupies its position. The platoon leader--

(3) As time permits, the platoon continues improving the position.

(1) If the answer is YES, the platoon continues to fight the defense.

(2) If the answer is NO, the platoon leader--

(1) Squad and section leaders provide ammunition, casualty, and equipment (ACE) reports to the platoon sergeant. Bradley commanders also provide fuel status. The platoon sergeant consolidates the ACE reports, reviews his ACE report with the platoon leader, and forwards it to the company commander (or XO).

(2) The platoon leader reestablishes the platoon chain of command.

(3) The platoon sergeant coordinates for resupply and supervises the execution of the casualty and EPW evacuation plan.

(4) The platoon continues to improve positions. The platoon quickly reestablishes OPs and resumes patrolling as directed.

(1) BFVs and dismounted infantry on the same battle position covering the same avenue of approach. (Figure 2-50.)

(2) BFVs and dismounted infantry on the same battle position covering different avenues of approach. (Figure 2-51.)

(3) BFVs and dismounted infantry on different battle positions covering the same avenue of approach. (Figure 2-52.)

(4) BFVs and dismounted infantry on different battle positions and different avenues of approach. When a Bradley platoon's mounted and dismounted elements are not going to be fighting in relation to each other, the control of both elements should be consolidated at company team level using the company team executive officer. The commander may consolidate dismount elements in one location and deploy the platoon's BFVs separately in the following situations:

(1) The platoon is usually assigned a sector within the company sector (Figure 2-54). The platoon leader may in turn assign sectors to elements, sections, and squads to permit maximum freedom of action for them to defend. They call for fire support through the platoon net. FOs may be attached or, as a minimum, leaders must be prepared to assist in calls for supporting fires.

(2) All elements (mounted/dismounted) coordinate with each other and conduct detailed reconnaissance of each sector and identifies all likely enemy avenues of approach, choke points, kill zones, obstacles, patrol bases, and cache sites. They also identify all tentative positions.

(3) The platoon leader confirms the selected tentative sites and incorporates them into his concept (Figure 2-55). He designates initial positions and the sequence in which successive positions are to be occupied. He gives each element specific guidance concerning contingency plans; rally, mount, and dismount points; and other coordinating instructions.

(4) All elements then prepare the defense in the sequence designated by the platoon leader. They initially prepare the primary position and then a hasty supplementary position, and then they select the alternate position. Elements improve the positions as time permits.

(5) When security warns of approaching enemy, the squad and section occupy their primary positions and prepare to engage the enemy. As the enemy moves into the choke point or kill zone, the squad and section initiates an ambush. They engage the enemy targets only as long as squads and sections do not become decisively engaged. Squads and sections then move to their next position and repeat the same process. The leader must plan the disengagement. Supporting positions, the use of smoke, and rehearsals are key to effective disengagements. Depending on METT-T factors, the entire battle may be fought this way. Some variations of this technique include the following:

(6) Casualty evacuation and resupply of ammunition and water are particularly difficult when defending this way.

(1) The majority of dismounted infantry weapons are not effective beyond 600 meters. In order to reduce or preclude destruction from enemy direct and indirect fires beyond that range, a reverse-slope defense should be considered.

(2) This conflicts, to some extent, with the need for the maximum observation forward to adjust fire on the enemy as well as the need for long-range fields of fire for friendly tanks, BFVs, and ATGMs. In some cases, it may be necessary for tanks, BFVs, and ATGMs to be deployed forward while the dismounted infantry remain on the reverse slope. These vehicles withdraw from their forward positions as the battle closes. The vehicles' new positions should be selected to take advantage of the BFV's long-range fires to get enfilade shots from the depth and the flanks of the reverse slope.

(3) At night, the nature of the threat may change and dismounted infantry may occupy the forward slope or crest to deny it to the enemy In those circumstances, it is feasible for a dismounted element to have an alternate night position forward.

(4) The area forward of the topographical crest must be controlled by friendly forces through aggressive patrolling and active as well as passive reconnaissance means. The platoon should use all of its night vision devices to deny the enemy undetected entry into the platoon's defensive area. The BFVs are a key part of the platoon's surveillance plan and should be positioned to take advantage of its thermal sights. The enemy must not be allowed to take advantage of reduced visibility to advance to a position of advantage without being taken under fire.

(5) Advantages of a reverse-slope defense are--

• Enemy ground observation of the position, including the use of surveillance devices and radar, is masked.
• Enemy cannot engage the position with direct fire without coming within range of the defender's weapons.
• Enemy indirect fire will be less effective due to lack of observation.
• Enemy may be deceived about the strength and location of positions.
• Defenders have more freedom of movement out of sight of the enemy.

(6) Disadvantages of a reverse-slope defense are--

• Observation to the front is limited.
• Fields of fire to the front are reduced.
• Enemy can begin his attack from a closer range.

(7) The decision to position forces on a reverse slope is normally made by the commander. He positions forces on a reverse slope when--

• He wishes to surprise or deceive the enemy about the location of his defensive position.
• A forward slope might be made untenable by direct enemy fire.
• Occupation of the forward slope is not essential to achieve depth and mutual support.
• The fields of fire on the reverse slope are better or at least sufficient to accomplish the mission.
• The forward slope position is likely to be the target of concentrated enemy artillery fires.

(8) BFVs offer the platoon additional opportunities regarding positioning. They can initially be positioned forward to take advantage of their protection from artillery and their ability to engage the enemy at long ranges. After an initial engagement, BFVs may move over or around the crest line and through the dismounted infantry on the reverse slope to a position that is either on the flanks or farther in depth to the rear.

(9) Obstacles are also necessary in a reverse-slope defense. Since the enemy will be engaged at close range, obstacles should--

• Prevent the enemy from closing too quickly and overrunning the positions.
• Facilitate disengagement.

(2) Flank positions in restrictive terrain provide windows of opportunity to engage the enemy and afford the BFV additional protection from enemy overwatching fire. (Figure 2-59.) The basis for this technique is to limit exposure by deliberately restricting a BFV's sector of fire. The BFV is exposed only to the targets at which it is firing. It then shifts to other firing positions as targets are destroyed. These positions restrict observation and vulnerability to only one segment of the platoon's engagement area; therefore, only those targets that can be seen (and engaged) by the BFV can return fire.

(3) Battlefield dust, smoke, fog, and darkness normally limit observation and fields of fire. When engagement ranges are reduced, flanking fires, use of obstacles, mutual support with infantry, and covered and conealed positions increase in importance. Because of battlefield obscuration, weapons must be positioned to fight during limited visibility or be able to quickly move to limited visibility positions.

(1) Firing position. Firing positions must cover the armor avenue(s) of approach in the platoon's sector. The desirable characteristics of a Dragon firing position are--

• Gunner observation of assigned sector to maximum range of weapon (if possible).
• Good fields of fire.
• Cover and concealment.
• Mask clearance.
• Security.
• Concealed routes.
• Capability for flanking fires.
• Backblast area.

(2) Fields of fire. The gunner must be able to keep the target in the sight of the weapon until the missile impacts. Hilly and wooded terrain could permit the target to become masked during tracking, causing the gunner to lose sight of and miss the target.

(3) Cover and concealment. The major vulnerability of the Dragon is the gunner's exposure to enemy direct and indirect fires while tracking the missile. A position detected by the enemy is easily destroyed. Cover is protection from enemy fire. Items used for cover include walls, trees, logs, and sandbags. Concealment is denial of observation by the enemy, both ground and air. Of primary importance is the backblast or launch signature effect of the missile when launched. Every effort must be made to prevent the enemy from detecting the launch signature. This is done by clearing away all loose sticks and rocks behind the launcher, wetting down the backblast area, and engaging from the flanks and rear. Excess movement in the position must be avoided to prevent detection. Overhead cover is difficult to provide because of the clearance required for the Dragon's backblast. Overhead cover should still be constructed based on this requirement and improved as time permits. Overhead cover is vitally important to prevent detection by air.

(4) Routes. The Dragon gunner must have routes to displace from primary to alternate and supplementary positions in the defense. Routes into, out of, and between positions must provide good cover and concealment, and facilitate speed of movement.

(5) Mutual support. Firing positions should provide for mutual support with other Dragons and TOW. Fields of fire should overlap and be carefully integrated.

(6) Security. Provisions should be made to provide security for Dragon gunners to the front, flanks, and rear. Such security could include protective mines, OPs, RSTA devices, and individual fighting positions.

(7) Target engagement. Leaders must specify to Dragon gunners, either in their plans and orders, or by platoon SOP, target priorities and rules for engaging multiple targets. Dragon gunners should be assigned sectors of fire to preclude more than one weapon engaging the same target at the same time. When engaging targets, gunners ensure they can track the target until impact.

(8) Oblique fire. Whenever possible, gunners engage targets with oblique fire. Platoon and squad leaders, when selecting positions, try to emplace the gunner in a position that permits him to cover his sector with oblique fire. It is difficult for the enemy to retrace the flight path of a missile to its launch site when the missile moves obliquely across their front, as opposed to being launched from a head-on position. Forces generally orient to their front and are therefore more vulnerable to fires from their flanks.

(1) The M249 is the main weapon for the squad's defense. The squad leader positions the M249 to accomplish the squad's mission. It provides a high volume of lethal, accurate fires to break up and stop enemy assaults. The M249 is effective at forcing enemy armor to fight buttoned up. It also provides limited effects against lightly armored vehicles.

(2) Each gun is given a primary and secondary sector of fire. Their sectors of fire should overlap each other and those of adjacent platoons. A gunner fires in his secondary sector only if there are no targets in his primary sector, or when ordered to do so. Each gun's primacy sector includes an FPL or a PDF. The gun is laid on the FPL or PDF unless engaging other targets. When FPFs are called for, the gunner shifts to and engages on the FPL or PDF.

(1) Sectors of fire. A sector of fire is a piece of the battlefield for which a gunner is responsible. He may be assigned a primary and a secondary sector. Leaders use sectors of fire to ensure that fires are distributed across the platoon's area of responsibility.

(2) Target reference points/reference points. Leaders designate natural or man-made terrain features as reference points. The gunner uses these reference points in target acquisition and range determination process during limited visibility. There will also be predesignated TRPs, which must be seen to be useful as TRPs or indirect fire targets. At least one TRP should always be in view using low magnification.

(3) Dead space. Dead space is any area that cannot be observed or covered by direct fire systems within the sector of fire. All dead space within the sector of fire must be identified to allow the BC and platoon leader to plan the use of fires (for example, mortars, artillery) to cover that area. The crew, working with their wingman vehicle crew, must walk the engagement area so that the gunners can detect dead spaces through the ISUs.

(4) Maximum engagement line. The depth of the sector is normally limited to the maximum effective engagement range of the vehicle's weapon systems; however, it can be less if there are objects that prevent the gunner from engaging targets at maximum effective engagement range. To assist in determining the distance to each MEL, the gunner or BC should use a map to make sure the MELs are shown correctly on the range card. MEL identification assists in decreasing the ammunition used on an engagement.

(5) Weapon reference point. The WRP is an easily recognizable terrain feature on the map. The WRP is used to assist leaders in plotting the vehicle's position, and to assist replacement personnel in finding the vehicle's position.

(1) Draw the weapon symbol in the center of the small circle. Draw two lines from the position of the BFV extending left and right to show the limits of the sector (Figure 2-62).

(2) Determine the value of each circle by finding a terrain feature farthest from the position that is within the weapon system's capability. Determine the distance to the terrain feature. Round off the distance to the next even hundredth, if necessary. Determine the maximum number of circles that will divide evenly into the distance. The result is the value of each circle. Draw the terrain feature on the appropriate circle on the range card. Clearly mark the increment for each circle across the area where DATA SECTION is written. For example, in Figure 2-63 a hilltop at 3,145 meters is used. The distance is rounded to 3,200 meters, divided by 8, and equals 400. Thus, each circle has a value of 400 meters.

(3) Complete the data section. (Figure 2-69.)

(4) Complete the marginal information at the top of the card (Figure 2-69).

(1) Stake the position. Before the Bradley is moved, the position should be staked. Three stakes are required to effectively mark the position as shown in Figure 2-70.

(2) Move into the position. If the situation permits, a ground guide can be used to assist the driver.

(1) Hasty fighting position. Soldiers prepare this type of position when there is little or no time to prepare fighting positions (Figure 2-77). They locate it behind whatever cover is available. The position should give frontal protection from direct fire while allowing fire to the front and oblique. A hasty position may consist simply of a rucksack placed beside a tree or large rock. For protection from indirect fire, a hasty fighting position should be in a small depression or hole at least 18 inches deep. The term hasty position does not mean there is no digging. Even if there are only a few minutes, a prone shelter can be scraped out or dug to provide some protection. This type of position is well-suited for ambushes or for protection of overwatching element during raids and attacks. Hasty positions can also be the first step in construction of more elaborate positions.

(2) One-soldier fighting position. This type of position allows choices in the use of cover; the hole only needs to be large enough for one soldier and his gear. It does not have the security of a two-soldier position. The one-soldier fighting position must allow a soldier to fire to the front or to the oblique from behind frontal cover. (Figure 2-78.)

(3) Two-soldier fighting position. A two-soldier fighting position can be prepared in close terrain. It can be used where grazing fire and mutual support extend no farther than to an adjacent position. It can be used to cover dead space just in front of the position. One or both ends of the hole are extended around the sides of the frontal cover. Changing a hole this way lets both soldiers see better and have greater sectors of fire to the front. Also, during rest or eating periods, one soldier can watch the entire sector while the other sleeps or eats. If they receive fire from their front, they can move back to gain the protection of the frontal cover. By moving about 1 meter, the soldiers can continue to find and hit targets to the front during lulls in enemy fire. This type of position requires more digging and is harder to camouflage. It is also a better target for enemy hand grenades (Figure 2-79.)

(4) Three-soldier fighting position. A three-soldier position has several advantages over the other types of positions. There is a leader in each position, which makes command and control easier. It supports continuous, secure operations better than other positions. One soldier can provide security; one can do priority work; and one can rest, eat, or perform maintenance. This allows the priority of work to be completed more quickly than in a one-soldier or two-soldier position. This position allows the platoon to maintain combat power and security without either shifting personnel or leaving positions unmanned. It provides 360-degree observation and fire, and it is more difficult for the enemy to destroy, because he must kill or suppress three soldiers.

(5) Machine gun position. The primary sector of fire is usually to the oblique so that the gun can fire across the platoon's front. The tripod is used on the side that covers the primary sector of fire. The bipod legs are used on the side that covers the secondary sector of fire. When changing from primary to secondary sectors, the gunner moves only the machine gun. Occasionally, a sector of fire that allows firing directly to the front is assigned, but this can reduce the frontal cover for the crew when firing to the oblique. (Figure 2-81.)

(6) Dragon position. The Dragon can be employed from hasty or completed positions. However, some changes are required. (Figure 2-82.)

(7) Light antitank weapon, AT4, and Flash positions. The LAW, the AT4, and the Flash can be fired from infantry fighting positions. If the LAW, AT4, or Flash is to be fired from a two-soldier position, the gunner must ensure that the other soldier is not in the backblast area. The front edge of a fighting position is a good elbow rest to help the gunner steady the weapon and to gain accuracy. The LAW or Flash gunner leans against the front or side wall of the hole for greater stability when firing (Figure 2-83). When firing the AT4, the gunner leans against the rear wall--his elbows are not supported.

(1) Parapets positioned at the front of or around major weapons systems provide improved protection from direct fire and from blast and fragments of indirect fire artillery, mortar, and rocket shells. At its base, the parapet should be at least 8 feet thick. The parapet functions as a standoff barrier for impact-detonating direct fire HEAT and ATGM projectiles. The parapet should cause the fuzes to activate, thereby increasing survivability for the protected vehicles. If the enemy uses kinetic energy, direct fire armor-piercing, or hypervelocity projectiles, it is impractical to construct parapets thick enough for protection. To protect against these projectiles, deep-cut, hull defilade, or turret defilade positions are prepared. The dimensions for fighting and protective positions for essential vehicles are constructed no larger than needed.

(2) Success on the battlefield requires maneuver among fighting positions between main gun firings. Maximum use of terrain is required to conceal fighting vehicles maneuvering among fighting positions. After a major weapon system fires its main gun, the vehicle should move concealed to another position before firing again. If the major weapon system immediately reappears in the old position, the enemy knows where to fire his next round. Table 2-6 summarizes the dimensions of the hasty and deliberate vehicle positions discussed in the following paragraphs.

(3) Positions formed by natural terrain are best because of easy modification. If preparation is necessary, extensive engineer support is required. Each position is camouflaged with either natural vegetation or a camouflage net, and the spoil is flattened out or hauled away. All fighting positions for fighting vehicles (tanks, BFVs, ITVs) are planned as deliberate positions. Since the lack of time usally does not allow the full construction of a deliberate position, only some parts of the position are prepared. For example, the complete fighting position for a BFV requires the construction of a hull defilade, turret defilade, concealed access ramp or route, and hide location all within the same fighting position. The maneuver team commander uses organic and engineer earthmoving assets and usually only constructs parts of the fighting position.

(4) Digging hide locations and concealed routes between fighting positions is normally not practical due to the lack of engineer assets and time. Engineer assets are used to dig the hull and turret defilade positions only. The ramps and concealed routes should require only partial clearing and leveling with blade tanks or engineer equipment because natural concealed routes and hide locations are used. If time permits, the commander expands the fighting position to all four parts, including a hide and turret defilade location. The access ramp from the hide location to the hull defilade position usually provides turret defilade for a vehicle at some point on the ramp. This location can be marked with engineer tape and a chemical light so the driver knows when to stop. This fighting position affords maximum protection and maneuver for the BFV.

(1) Fire and movement. Fire and movement to the rear is the basic tactic for disengaging. All available fires are used to slow the enemy and allow platoons to move away. The commander may move his platoons and mass fires to stop or slow the enemy advance before beginning the movement away from the enemy.

(2) Plans for a disengagement. Plans for a disengagement may be part of any defensive plan. When squads are deployed, a plan for rapid remounting must be made.

(3) Dismount element disengagement. When the dismount and fighting vehicle elements are separated, there are three ways the dismount element can disengage. Simultaneous disengagement (moving all teams at the same time) can be used when the element is covered by another force. When the dismount element must cover its own movement, it disengages by teams or by thinning the lines.

(4) Fighting vehicle element disengagement. Because of the BFV's speed, firepower, and protection against small-arms fire and artillery shell fragments, it is usually best for the dismount element (when deployed) to disengage first while covered by the BFVs. If the BFVs are not in a position to support the dismount element by fire or if the dismount element is heavily engaged, the fighting vehicle element may disengage first and move to a position to assist the dismount element in disengagement. Whichever method is used, there are two basic ways the vehicle element can disengage. If BFVs are covered by another force, simultaneous disengagement may be used. If BFVs must cover their own movement, it disengages by section. These methods are similar to those used by the dismount element.

(1) Task organization. The stay-behind unit includes only the soldiers and equipment needed for the mission. It needs only minimal logistics support and can provide its own security. It must be able to hide easily and move through restrictive terrain. Therefore, BFVs may or may not be a part of the stay-behind forces.

(2) Reconnaissance. This is most important in a stay-behind operation. Reporting tasks and information requirements can include suitable sites for patrol bases, hide positions, OPs, caches, water sources, dismounted and mounted avenues of approach, kill zones, engagement areas, and covered and concealed approach routes.

(3) Combat service support. Because the stay-behind unit will not be in physical contact with its supporting unit, supplies of rations ammunition, radio batteries, water, and medical supplies are cached. Provisions for casualty and EPW evacuation depend on the company and battalion plans. BFVs in the stay-behind forces have some advantages however, BFVs do cause some CSS planning problems.

(4) Deception plan. Most stay-behind operations are set up covertly. The enemy must be mislead during this effort to cause him to act in a manner favorable to the unit's plan of action. COMSEC is a special concern; radio transmissions must be brief and encoded.

(5) Concept of the operation. Units usually operate in small groups in their own areas. The actual concept, however, depends on the commander's intent.

(1) Reconnaissance. Leaders must reconnoiter different routes into and out of the position; assembly areas; logistics points; primary, alternate, and supplementary positions; obstacles; immediate terrain; and when possible, patrol routes and OP locations.

(2) Plans and tasks. The outgoing leader must provide copies of the unit sector sketch, fire plan, range cards for all vehicles, weapons, barrier plan, minefield records, counterattack plans, and plans for any other tasks that must be performed as part of the defense.

(3) Relief plan. Both leaders must know which method and sequence of relief has been prescribed in the company order, and how they will execute the plan. They must--

• Know if their platoons will execute the relief by squads, by BFV (section), or as a complete platoon (method). Platoons may also execute the relief by occupying adjacent terrain or terrain in depth rather than by relieving soldiers and units in position.
• Know the order of relief for platoons within the company (sequence); include the relief of OPs by patrol.
• Coordinate the use of vehicle guides, signals, challenge and password, and passage of responsibility for the mission and control of the unit (normally when most of the incoming unit is in place).

(4) Exchange of equipment. Leaders coordinate the exchange of phones or switchboards, and emplaced munitions (if included in the relief order). Units do not exchange radios or radar equipment (if attached).

(5) Exchange of supplies. Leaders identify numbers and classes of supplies to be left behind and their location to include sensors, construction materiel, wire, and any supplies that might slow the movement of the outgoing platoon.

(1) Disposition of vehicles. The platoon leader must develop a security plan in the staging area for the vehicles until the air assault mission is completed and the platoon returns to the LZ. The security plan can be as simple as a coil or herringbone formation for the platoon, or the platoon may be part of a company modified perimeter defense. Instructions for link up of the platoon with its vehicles will also be included.

(2) Linkup of vehicles. The platoon leader's linkup plan must be just as detailed as the staging and loading plan. To simplify the linkup, the platoon leader must ensure that platoon integrity is maintained as much as possible. The platoon leader or company commander should designate a linkup point for each unit to link up with their vehicles on landing. As the aircrafts land, the unit's immediately move to their linkup point, mount their vehicles if required, and prepare to continue the mission.

(1) The first technique is the quickest, safest, most efficient and thorough technique for resupply. It is the service-station technique (Figure 2-98); the company sets up a resupply point behind the company and platoons' positions. Each platoon as a whole or by sections quickly rotates through refueling and rearming, picks up other supplies and rations, and receives medical and maintenance support.

(2) The seeond technique is the tailgate technique of resupply (Figure 2-99). This is used when a vehicle cannot be moved from its position. Ammunition, fuel, POLs, and other supplies are moved to the rear of each vehicle's position providing resupply in place. This technique should be used when enemy contact is not likely. It also takes the most time.

(1) Operator and crew maintenance includes proper care, use, and operation of equipment. The BFV driver and other crew members perform daily services on the vehicle and all other assigned equipment such as weapons, night vision devices, and NBC gear. These services include inspecting, servicing; tightening; minor lubricating, cleaning, and preserving; and adjusting tools and equipment as prescribed by technical manuals. Crew members must record on DA Form 2404 (Equipment Inspection and Maintenance Worksheet) all equipment faults they cannot correct or those they can correct by replacing a part. The driver's and gunner's reports are the main way to convey information about equipment faults to the platoon leader and to unit maintenance personnel.

(2) PMCS for the turret, automotive, and weapon systems should be conducted before, during, and after operation. This includes detailed daily service as prescribed in the TM and lubrication order.

(3) The gunner should be responsible for maintaining the turret to include weapon systems, maintaining DA Form 2408-4 (round count) on the 25-mm gun and TOW, and knowing when replacement on weapon parts are required such as the 25-mm gun firing pin assembly (8,000 rounds) and breech (25,000 rounds). The driver is responsible for completing DA Form 2404, for performing automotive checks, and for operating the BFV.

(4) When the operator identifies a problem that is beyond his level of maintenance, the battalion maintenance platoon must be notified to isolate and correct it. The battalion maintenance platoon has five company maintenance teams that establish support relationships with the companies. Company maintenance teams have trained mechanics who are authorized to do unit maintenance. Battalion maintenance personnel have test equipment that allows them to rapidly diagnose faults in the system. With the BFV's provision for rapid modular replacement, many faults can also be rapidly corrected. If battalion maintenance cannot repair the item, they arrange to have it checked by DS maintenance.

(1) Those EPWs who receive favors and those who become mistreated are poor interrogation subjects. In handling EPWs, soldiers use the five "S's":

(2) If an EPW is wounded and cannot be evacuated through normal channels, he is treated by an aidman and evacuated through medical channels. The EPW must be guarded by other than medical soldiers.

(3) Before evacuating an EPW, he should be tagged with a captive and equipment/document tag (Figure 2-100) or a minimal tag (Figures 2-101 and 2-102). The tag should be perforated into three parts and made of durable material. It should measure about 10 centimeters by 10 centimeters for each part. It should be pierced at the top and bottom and reinforced for security for ease of attachment.

(1) Platoon evacuation. The BFV is the quickest and safest way to evacuate casualties. The casualties are transported to the company casualty collection point. If a company casualty collection point has not been set up, or the situation does not permit use of a BFV, the platoon leader requests help from the company commander. The platoon aidman goes with the casualties if they require immediate care. The aidman completes a DD Form 1380 (Field Medical Card) and attaches it to the casualty. This card stays with the casualty until evacuation is complete. The information on the card includes initial diagnosis and medication given.

(2) Company evacuation. When the company is to evacuate casualties, the casualties should be moved to a covered and concealed location to the rear of the platoon's position. This location must be reported to the company when the evacuation request is submitted. If enemy indirect fire presents a threat, the casualties are kept in a BFV and transferred to the ambulance when it arrives. When this is done, the platoon leader may send two men or a fire team to secure the location and guide the ambulance.

(1) When the company team uses traveling or traveling overwatch movement techniques, the commander stipulates the sequence and locations for movement and the distance between the tanks and BFVs. BFVs must be close enough to protect the flanks and rear of the tanks.

(2) When the company team uses bounding overwatch, a tank platoon usually serves as the bounding element successively overwatched by BFVs and, in some cases, by other tanks. Because tank crews have difficulty seeing behind them, one of the BFV platoon's primary jobs is to protect the tanks' rear and flanks from enemy infantry attack. The platoon must be alert for enemy antiarmor positions. Since ATGM fires are usually characterized by a trail of smoke from the launch site, the BFV commanders should suppress the enemy antiarmor weapon and send a warning over the radio.

(1) When an obstacle hinders mounted movement, the dismount element clears or breaches it, or finds a bypass. It approaches the obstacle using bounding overwatch, while BFVs are positioned to support. Also, when visibility interferes with mounted movement, the dismount element leads, overwatched by the BFVs and tanks.

(2) Fire control is difficult while moving during limited visibility, but it is facilitated by using the wingman concept. It can be done only if the platoon has practiced the SOP. Indirect-fire illumination should not be relied on, because it is slow and not as effective in smoke, fog, snow, dust, or heavy rain. Additionally, heavy rain or cold fog reduces thermal sight range capability. Although the thermal sight allows the BFV and tanks to acquire a target at great distances during reduced visibility, it does not provide a clear enough sight picture for vehicle identification. Platoons using thermal sights for long distances must establish positive identification and check-fire procedures to preclude destroying friendly vehicles or personnel.

(1) Support the tactical plan. Obstacles supplement combat power, decrease the mobility of the enemy, and provide security for the platoon. While considering enemy avenues of approach, the leader also considers his own movement requirements such as routes for resupply, withdrawal, counterattacks, patrols, and observation posts.

(2) Tie in. He ties in his reinforcing obstacles with existing and natural obstacles. He must also coordinate the obstacle plan with his plans for fire support.

(3) Covered by observation and fire. He ensures that all obstacles are covered by observation and fire. This reduces the enemy's ability to remove or breach the obstacles and increases the possibilities of placing fire on the enemy when he encounters the obstacles.

(4) Constructed in depth. He emplaces obstacles so that each new obstacle encountered by the enemy attrites the enemy force and causes a desired and controlled reaction. Proper use of obstacles in depth weakens the enemy and significantly increases the overall desired effect.

(5) Employed for surprise. An obvious pattern of obstacles would disclose locations of platoons and weapons. Friendly forces must avoid readily visible patterns.

(1) Steep slopes. Varying degrees of incline are required to stop different types of vehicles. Tanks can negotiate slopes as steep as 60 percent. Craters, mines, abatis, and induced landslides increase the obstacle value of slopes.

(2) Escarpments. Vertical (or near-vertical) cuts and walls over 1 1/2 meters high cannot be crossed by vehicles without some type of breach. Thick rock walls, railroad embankments, and steep fills along highways are examples of esarpments.

(3) Ravines, gullies, and ditches. Ravines, gullies, and ditches are obstacles to wheeled vehicles. If over 5 meters wide, these obstacles are usually effective against tracked vehicles.

(4) Rivers, streams, and canals. The major obstacle value of rivers, streams, and canals is that they must be crossed by special means: deepwater fording or surface or aerial means. The ease of crossing by deepwater fording and surface means is determined by the width and depth of the water obstacle, the water velocity, and the condition of the banks and bottom.

(5) Swamps and marshes. Swamps and marshes, where firm ground is lacking or is a meter or so below water level, are effective obstacles against all types of vehicles. They also severely restrict the mobility of infantry.

(6) Snow. Even on otherwise trafficable terrain, snow 1 meter deep becomes a major obstacle to personnel and vehicles.

(7) Trees. Heavy stands of trees that are 8 inches or more in diameter, spaced less than 20 feet apart, will eventually build up into an obstacle if tracked vehicles attempt to push them over and force their way through.

(8) Built-up area. The obstacle value of a built-up area depends on its size, location, and construction. The natural obstacle value of built-up areas can be increased by cratering streets; demolishing walls; overturning or derailing street or railroad cars; and constructing roadblocks from steel rails, beams, and rubble. When reinforced with mines and barbed wire, such obstacles protect against armored, mechanized, and infantry forces.

(1) Road craters. Road craters are effective obstacles on roads or trails if the areas on the flanks of the crater are tied into steep slopes or mined areas.

(2) Abatis. An abatis is an obstacle created by cutting down trees so that their tops are crisscrossed and pointing toward the expected enemy direction. It is most effective for stopping vehicles in a forest. This obstacle may be reinforced with mines and booby traps.

(3) Ditches. Ditches across roads and trails are effective obstacles. Large ditches in open areas require engineer equipment.

(4) Log hurdles. Log hurdles act as "speed bumps" on roads. They are easily installed and are most effective when used in conjunction with other obstacles.

(5) Log cribs. A log crib is constructed of logs, dirt, and rocks. The logs are used to make rectangular or triangular cribs that are filled with dirt and rock. These are used to block narrow roads and defiles. Log cribs must be solidly built to stop tanks.

(6) Log posts. Log posts embedded in the road and employed in depth can effectively stop tracked vehicles. If they are not high enough to be pushed out of the way, posts can cause a tracked vehicle to throw a track if it tries to climb over. If employed with wire and mines, they can also slow infantry.

(7) Rubble. Rubble from selected masonry structures and buildings in a built-up area will limit movement through an area and provide fortified fighting positions.

(8) Wire entanglements. Wire entanglements impede the movement of infantry and, in some cases, tracked and wheeled vehicles. The materials used in constructing wire entanglements are relatively lightweight (compared to other obstacles) and inexpensive, considering the protection they afford.

(9) Mines. Mines are one of the most effective tank and personnel killers on the battlefield. Minefields that an infantry platoon or squad most commonly emplace are the hasty protective, point, and phony.

(1) In-stride breach. The in-stride breach involves the breach of an obstacle or obstacles to maintain the momentum of an attack by attempting to breach them as they are encountered.

(2) Deliberate breach. A deliberate breach is conducted when it is not possible or necessary to cross an obstacle in stride, or after a hasty breach has failed. It is characterized by detailed planning and preparation, and executed with engineer assistance.

(3) Assault breach. The assault breach is conducted by company teams and platoons assigned the mission of assaulting an objective as part of a larger force's attack. The assault breach allows a force to penetrate an enemy's protective obstacles and destroy the defender in detail.

(4) Covert breach. The covert breach is a special breaching operation used by dismounted forces during limited visibility. It is silently executed to achieve surprise and to minimize casualties. The covert breach relies on stealth, quiet manual lane-reduction techniques, and dismounted maneuver. A covert breach is used during an assault when the need for surprise outweighs the need for overwhelming suppression.

(3) Step 3. Probe and Mark Mines. A footpath or lane is probed and the mines are marked. The preferred way to clear a lane through a minefield is to use a rocket-propelled line charge or bangalore torpedo. (Figure 2-110.) The only way to clear a minefield without special equipment is to probe with a pointed nonmetallic object. One squad probes while the platoon (-) overwatches. (Figure 2-111.)

(4) Step 4. Secure the Far Side. As soon as the breaching element has probed a lane, it or another element secures the far side. Dismounted forces should secure the far side of an obstacle as quickly as possible. This helps keep the enemy from attacking or placing fires on the breach site. When breaching an obstacle for vehicles, if the dismounted element can bypass on foot, leaders should designate an element to bypass the obstacle and secure the far side while the breaching effort is on-going. That element should have machine guns; light and or medium antiarmor weapons; and a map, compass, and binoculars or thermal sight to call for and adjust fires.

(5) Step 5. Reduce the obstacles. Marked mines are destroyed with explosives or grappling hooks. Metallic mines must be destroyed before moving soldiers through the lane.

(6) Step 6. Mark Cleared Lane. The breach element marks the cleared lane.

(7) Step 7. Move Unit Through the Obstacle. The leader moves the platoon through the obstacle.

(1) Effects of chemical agents. Chemical agents enter the body through the eyes, nose, mouth, or skin. Liquid agents may contaminate equipment, the ground, and foliage. The agent may stay for hours or days and be a serious hazard to unprotected soldiers. Chemical agents cannot destroy the BFV or its equipment. They can restrict equipment use until the equipment is sufficiently decontaminated to reduce the hazard. At platoon level, soldiers can decontaminate only the mission-essential areas (driver's controls, gunner's controls, and individual weapons). So all personnel must continue to wear protective masks, overgarments, overboots, and gloves once chemical contamination has occurred. All leaders and soldiers must know what their responsibilities are and the techniques for decontamination operations in accordance with FM 3-5.

(2) Alarms for chemical hazard or attack. Standard alarms include the vocal signal "GAS," prescribed arm-and-hand signals, automatic chemical-agent alarms, rapid and continuous beating on any metal object that produces a loud noise, a succession of short blasts on a vehicle horn or any other similar device, or a broken warbling siren sound (example, 10 seconds on, 10 seconds off). The vocal signal "ALL CLEAR" indicates that the danger no longer exists. Normally, it is initiated by leaders (company commander or platoon leader) after prescribed unmasking procedures have been completed. (Figure 2-114.)

(1) Chemical attack. A soldier's primary protection against chemical attack is his protective mask, which protects against inhalation of chemical agents. To be fully protected against liquid chemical agents, soldiers must wear the chemical protective overgarments, the mask with hood, overboots, and rubber gloves. (Figure 2-115.)

(2) Biological attack. Definite information on enemy use of biological agents may come down from higher headquarters. Still, each platoon must be alert to the danger and report at once any unusual occurrence of disease. The best local defense against biological warfare is strict enforcement of all preventive medical measures (prescribed immunizations) and field sanitation measures as well as high standards of personal hygiene. Soldiers should eat and drink only from approved sources.

(1) The M8A1 automatic chemical-agent alarm produces an audible or visual signal when it detects the presence of nerve agents in the air. It is stowed inside the BFV on the right rear wall. To detect chemical agents, personnel must remove the M8A1 alarm from the vehicle, assemble according to TM 3-6665-225-12, backpack, or mount externally, and place into operation.

(2) The M256 chemical-agent detector kit is used to detect sublethal vapor concentration of nerve, blister, and blood agents. The kit should be used when a chemical attack has occurred or when the presence of a chemical agent is suspected. (Figure 2-117.)

(3) ABC-M8 chemical-agent detector paper comes in a 25-sheet booklet, The booklet is a component of the M256 chemical-agent detector kit and the individual protective mask. The paper sheets are treated with chemicals that turn dark green, yellow, or red when in contact with liquid V-type nerve agents, G-type nerve agents, or blister (mustard) agents, respectively. This paper must touch the liquid agent to be sure of a positive test; it does not detect vapor. It is best suited for use on nonporous material such as metal. The test is not always reliable on porous material (such as wood or rubber) that can absorb the liquid agent. Many substances (including some solvents and decontaminates) can also cause a color change in this paper; hence, it is only reliable as an indicator of the possible presence of a chemical agent. Positive detector-paper tests should be verified using the chemical-agent detector kit.

(4) The M9 chemical-agent detector paper is gray-green and has an adhesive back. The adhesive back is protected by a white paper backing until dispensed from the roll. The paper is 2 inches wide and 30 feet long. Each roll is contained in a cardboard dispenser equipped with a cutter edge. The dispenser is packaged in a foil-type shipping bag. A resealable plastic storage bag is included for storing the dispenser after removal from the shipping bag. The detector paper detects a chemical agent during all types of weather conditions. It is worn by individuals or attached to vehicles or a piece of equipment. The detector paper indicates the presence of a liquid chemical agent. When a liquid chemical touches the paper, a pink, red, red-brown, or red-purple spot appears. The spot may be as small as a pinhead or as large as a dime.

(5) The chemical-agent monitor (CAM) is a portable, hand-held instrument used to determine and indicate a vapor hazard of G-series nerve agents and H-series blister agents in the air. The CAM is used to search for clean areas, to detect and locate contamination on personnel and equipment, and to monitor for the effectiveness of decontamination operations. The CAM is sensitive enough to monitor levels of contamination at the lowest concentration levels that could affect personnel over short periods. The CAM displays concentration levels on a liquid crystal display.

(1) If the attack is recognized as a chemical spray attack, soldiers should use a protective cover, such as a poncho or shelter half, to further protect themselves from liquid droplets. After the spray has stopped falling, individuals can throw off the cover, avoiding contaminating clothing and equipment.

(2) When friendly forces use chemical agents, the headquarters directing the fire mission provides the necessary safety information to friendly platoons that may be affected by the mission. Individuals take the same protective measures they would take against a similar type of enemy chemical attack.

(1) Procedures when a detector kit is available. The chemical-agent detector kit M256 is used to test for the presence of chemical agents. If there is not any evidence of agents, two to three individuals unmask for 5 minutes, then remask. They are observed for chemical-agent symptoms for 10 minutes in a shady area. (A shady area is used because light causes contraction of the pupils, which could be mistaken for a nerve-agent symptom.) If no symptoms appear, the rest of the soldiers may unmask. Soldiers are warned to remask immediately if anyone suspects that a chemical agent may be present.

(2) Procedures when a detector kit is not available. The following is an emergency field expedient when friendly elements have been masked for prolonged periods, when there are no remaining signs of chemical agent use, and when the platoon has no detector kit available. Two to three soldiers are selected to hold deep breaths, break the seals of their masks, and keep their eyes wide open and hold their breath for 15 seconds. They then clear their masks, reseal them, and wait for 10 minutes. If symptoms do not appear after 10 minutes, the same soldiers again break their seals, take two or three breaths, and clear and reseal their masks. After another 10-minute wait, if symptoms have not developed, the same soldiers unmask for 5 minutes and then remask. After 10 more minutes, if symptoms have not appeared, they report to the company/team commander and wait for instructions before unmasking. The area can be assumed to be all clear and the commander may order unmasking. Soldiers are warned to remask if for any reason they may suspect a chemical agent is present.

(1) Heat exhaustion. Soldiers operating at moderate to heavy work rates while in chemical protective gear may experience heat exhaustion (dizziness and fainting) at any time, especially in hot weather. Because of increased sweating, they need more drinking water than normal.

(2) Fatigue. Soldiers in full chemical protective clothing and equipment tend to experience fatigue because of such factors as mask breathing resistance, rise in body temperature from work energy, solar heat, and psychological and physiological stress. This condition of fatigue increases the need for more rest breaks and sleep to maintain individual alertness and efficiency.

(3) Senses. Soldiers who are required to perform duties involving the senses or related functions, such as manning an observation post, tend to operate at lower levels of efficiency while wearing protective equipment. Individual performance levels depend on training and proficiency. Even simple functions, such as talking on the radio and looking through weapon sights, become difficult while wearing the protective mask.

(4) Personal needs. Soldiers cannot be in full chemical protection for indefinite periods and still attend to certain personal needs such as eating, caring for wounds, shaving, and eliminating body wastes. The platoon leader should plan for these needs by coordinating with the company commander for movement to an uncontaminated area.

(1) Skin decontamination. If chemical agents get on bare skin, it is an emergency. The best technique for removing or neutralizing this contamination is by using skin decontamination. This is a basic soldier survival skill and is performed using the M258A1 skin decontamination kit. Decontamination should begin within one minute to be most effective.

(2) Personal wipedown. The personal wipedown technique removes or neutralizes contamination on the hood, mask, gloves, and personal weapon. Soldiers also use the M258A1 skin decontamination kit to perform personal wipedown. (Figure 2-118.) Personal wipedown should begin within 15 minutes of being contaminated.

(3) Operator's spraydown. The operator's spraydown technique should begin right after finishing personal wipedown. The spraydown removes or neutralizes contamination on surfaces that operators must frequently touch to do their missions. This can be done using the ABC-M11 or M13 portable decontamination apparatus, which dispenses DS-2. (Figure 2-119.) Each vehicle has one M11 decontamination apparatus that contains 1 1/3 quarts of DS-2 decontaminating agent and one can of DS-2 replacement fluid or one M13 decontamination apparatus, which has a capacity of 14 liters of DS-2. These are on the interior left front of the BFV, behind the driver. The M11 decontamination apparatus is used to decontaminate vehicle parts that must be touched to operate the vehicle. These areas include the driver's compartment and the turret controls.

DS-2 must be removed by washing after 30 minutes contact time to prevent corrosive damage to the equipment. MOPP4 gear must be worn when using DS-2.

(4) MOPP gear exchange. The MOPP gear exchange is conducted by the contaminated squad (occasionally platoon) and supported by company NBC NCO and the company supply section that provides decomtaminants and new overgarments. When performing MOPP gear exchange, soldiers are paired into buddy teams. The teams are spaced around a circle, with 1 to 3 meters between each team. (Figure 2-120.) (See FM 3-5 for a detailed explanation.)

(5) Vehicle washdown. The vehicle washdown is supported by the battalion's power-driven decontamination equipment crew or a chemical company decontamination squad. The vehicle washdown greatly reduces the transfer hazard on equipment. Every vehicle is washed with hot soapy water for two to three minutes. Because speed is important and detection is difficult, vehicles are not checked for contamination after vehicle washdown is completed. Only gross contamination is removed. See FM 3-5 for a detailed explanation.

(6) Detailed troop and detailed equipment decontamination. Detailed troop and detailed equipment decontamination are classified as deliberate decontamination operations. Deliberate decontamination operations remove sufficient amounts of contamination to allow soldiers to safely operate the equipment at reduced MOPP levels for extended periods. It requires that the platoon be taken out of battle; however, when it is finished decontaminating, the platoon has its combat power restored. It will no longer need to operate in full MOPP4. Deliberate decontamination is done as part of an extensive reconstitution effort in brigade, division, and corps support areas. Ordinarily, the chemical unit selects a site, sets it up, and conducts the equipment decontamination with assistance from the contaminated platoon. The troop decontamination is set up and operated by the contaminated platoon with some technical assistance from the chemical unit.

(1) Waypoints. The navigational functions of GPSs are based on waypoints. A waypoint is a known position entered into GPS's memory. Waypoints can be entered as either degrees latitude or longitude or as military grid coordinates. Waypoints or the platoon's position can be entered at various times.

(2) Navigation. To navigate, points along the route or the destination point is identified. Next, these points are entered as waypoints. Then, the platoon moves from waypoint to waypoint. To find the distance and direction between two known points, they must first be entered as waypoints.

(3) Range and bearing. To find the range and bearing to a known point, that point must first be entered as a waypoint. GPS stores the present position and then computes the distance and direction to the known point. As the platoon approaches the waypoint, the range decreases until the platoon is within a given distance of the waypoint. At that time, an alarm will sound indicating that the platoon has reached the waypoint. Then, the range and bearing to the next waypoint can be displayed.

(4) Cross-country navigation. When navigating cross country, the bearing shown by the GPS can be followed from point to point. Obstacles en route will force detours from the route from time to time. When an obstacle forces a detour of more than a few meters, the GPS can assist the platoon in getting back on course. Some GPSs display the distance that the platoon is off course, a new course to the waypoint, and an estimated time to arrive based on the speed for the last two minutes. The left or right arrow shows the direction to the original course. The arrow shows the direction the platoon needs to turn and a new bearing to the waypoint. If the platoon needs to reach the desired point and the route to it is not important, then the platoon follows the indicated course. The course shown is the new direction the waypoint and will not return to the original course. If the original course must be used, then the platoon uses the direction of the arrow and travels the distance indicated until the GPS shows no error.

(5) Road march. GPS can be useful on road marches in identifying checkpoints or coordination points on long roads without distinctive features. The waypoint for the checkpoint is entered and the range and bearing display is selected. Then, the platoon moves until the alarm sounds. In this case, the bearing to the waypoint is of little use, because the platoon is following a road and there will be numerous deviations from the straight-line bearing. If the platoon enters a road at an unknown point, the bearing could be a quick way to determine the direction to the waypoint.

(6) Offensive operations. The GPS can locate a platoon's position within an assembly area. A waypoint with the grid location of the center unit's area ensures proper placement within the assembly area. Waypoints at the start point, the release point, and along the route help to guide the unit to the line of departure.

(7) Defensive operations. In establishing a battle position, the platoon can use the anchor watch feature of most GPSs to ensure that all elements are within the proper area. The anchor watch sounds an alarm whenever the platoon gets too far from a designated point. The desired range is entered. The range is the distance from the center point that the platoon will go before sounding an alarm. Once a vehicle has established its location on primary and subsequent battle positions, that location can be saved as a waypoint to aid in finding it again later.

(1) BFVs can overwatch from the LD, or from an appropriate terrain feature, where they can use their thermal sights to help orient or vector the dismounted movement, or they can provide supporting fires if needed. Once the rally point or assault position is reached, or upon initiation of an assault, BFVs can be brought forward to either support by fire from a close overwatch or to remount and continue the mission.

(2) If the terrain provides covered and concealed routes for BFVs or if BFV suppressive fire is needed quickly, the BFVs may follow the dismounted platoon at an appropriate interval. That interval may be 50 or 100 meters in close terrain. The platoon leader may use indirect fires to help cover the noise of vehicle movement. However, with careful lane selection, armored vehicles can effectively infiltrate.

(1) If a single lane is used, the platoon leader must select a route through the enemy positions and select a rally point. (Figure 2-124.) If multiple routes are used, the platoon leader must choose a lane for each squad, and a rally point where the platoon will link up. The route must avoid enemy positions, have cover and concealment, and ease control and navigation. When deciding to use single or multiple routes, the platoon leader must consider several things. Moving on a single route will--

• Get the element to its rally point faster.
• Ease control.
• Ease navigation.
• Increase the chances of the entire element being detected.

(2) Moving on multiple routes (Figure 2-125) will--

• Get the element to its rally point slower.
• Hinder control.
• Hinder navigation.
• Decrease the chances of the entire element being detected.
• Increase possibility of detection of part of the element.

(1) At night, objects may appear distorted. Ranges are difficult to estimate and dark objects appear more distant than light objects. To compensate for scan, off-center viewing techniques are used as outlined in FM 21-75, Chapter 4. On a clear night, the naked eye can distinguish land relief up to 400 meters. With a full moon, the naked eye can spot a moving man about 240 meters away and with binoculars, at 700 meters. Haze, smoke, dust, and fog limit observation farther. Also, at night, sound can be heard farther, but the direction is difficult to determine.

(2) Haze, smoke, and fog may prevent the use of image intensification devices during daylight. The effectiveness of thermal sights is also degraded. Provisions for day limited visibility operations must be made. Range cards are prepared so personnel can cover avenues of approach and obstacles, and shift and mass fires.

(3) Physical and psychological factors must also be considered in limited visibility operations. Darkness may stimulate the imagination, creating a feeling of insecurity that could lead to panic. The sensitivity of the eyes and ears during night differs from day. Soldiers using RSTA devices should rest at least every 30 minutes. To avoid eye fatigue, operators are rotated every hour. Sleep plans should be established and enforced; otherwise, the individual soldier's fighting ability is degraded.

(1) Aiming stakes--used to assist the soldier in firing his weapon on dangerous avenues of approach.

(2) Sector stakes--used on the right and left to define the sector of fire. They also prevent accidental firing into adjacent positions.