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Military

CHAPTER 2

COMMAND, CONTROL, AND COMMUNICATIONS

This chapter discusses command and control techniques and communications requirements for the successful integration of the BSFV platoon with its supported force.

Command is the authority vested in an individual of the armed forces for the direction, coordination, and control of military forces. Control is the authority, which may be less than full command, exercised by a commander over part of the activities of subordinate or other organizations. The platoon leader commands the BSFV platoon, aided by the platoon sergeant. Effective platoon command and control is mainly dependent on leadership, training, standing operating procedures (SOPs), drills, and the effective use of control procedures and communications techniques.

COMMAND

For forces to properly task-organize to accomplish varying missions, command and support relationships have been established to define relationships between supporting and supported forces on the battlefield. This section describes the relationships between supported and supporting units.

COMMAND RELATIONSHIPS

Command relationships define the specifics of command and control and support between supported and supporting forces. Command responsibility and authority vary depending on the type of command relationships between units and elements. The four types of command relationships that will be used by the BSFV platoon are organic, assigned, attached, and operational control (OPCON).

Organic

A unit is organic when it forms an essential part of a larger unit and is listed in the larger unit's TOE. For example, a BSFV platoon is organic to a BSFV battery.

Assigned

Assigned units are those units placed in an organization on a permanent basis. Assigned units are con-trolled and administered by the organization to which they are assigned. For example, an air defense artillery battalion is assigned to a division.

Attached

Attachment places a unit in an organization on a temporary basis. Attached units are subject to limitations specified in the attachment order. The attachment order should state clearly the administrative and support responsibility of the gaining unit to the attached unit and any limitations. The commander of the formation, unit, or organization receiving the attachment will exercise the same degree of command and control as he dots over units organic to his command. When a unit is attached, the supported force normally provides administrative and logistical support to the attached unit. However, the responsibility for transfer and promotion of personnel will normally be retained by the parent formation, unit, or organization. For example, a BSFV platoon from one battery in the air defense battalion may become attached to another battery in the same battalion.

Operational Control

OPCON is a relationship in which a unit is provided to the commander of another unit to accomplish specific missions or tasks which are usually limited by function, time, or location. OPCON is normally assigned when the parent unit cannot exercise effective command and control. Units placed in an OPCON relationship do not normally receive administrative or logistical support, unless specified in the operation order directing their OPCON status. An example of OPCON is a BSFV platoon placed OPCON to a mechanized task force for an offensive mission.

CONTENTS

Command

Control

Communications

SUPPORT RELATIONSHIPS

Support relationships define specific arrangements and responsibilities between supporting and supported units. The four support relationships are direct support, general support, reinforcing, and general support-reinforcing.

Direct Support (DS)

In direct support, the supporting unit provides dedicated support to a specific unit. A DS ADA unit provides dedicated air defense for a specific element of the force which has no organic air defense. The supporting ADA unit coordinates its movement and positioning with the supported unit. A BSFV platoon, for example, may provide direct support to a mechanized task force. The platoon will provide dedicated support to the task force and the platoon leader will position the platoon in conjunction with the task force commander's concept of the operation.

General Support (GS)

An ADA unit in general support provides support for the force as a whole. It is not committed to any specific clement of the supported force. It dots not support a specific unit within the larger unit's area of operations. An ADA unit in general support remains under the control of its higher ADA commander and is positioned by its ADA commander. GS is commonly used to protect corps or division level assets and is not normally a support relationship used by BSFV platoons.

Reinforcing (R)

A reinforcing ADA unit augments the support of another ADA unit or strengthens the air defense of the force. A reinforcing ADA unit is positioned to protect one or more of the reinforced unit's priorities as specified by the supported ADA unit commander. For example, a BSFV platoon could reinforce the ADA battery which is in direct support of a maneuver brigade conducting the division main attack. This support relationship is not normally used by BSFV platoons.

General Support-Reinforcing (GS-R)

An ADA unit with a general support-reinforcing mission provides support for the force as a whole and augments the support provided by another ADA unit. ADA units with a GS-R mission still have a responsibility to provide support to units or assets within a specific area, but must coordinate with the supported ADA unit to reinforce the coverage of assets in the area of operations. BSFV platoons are not normally assigned a GS-R mission.

SUPPORT RELATIONSHIP SELECTING

The ADA Support Relationships illustration, shows responsibilities associated with each ADA relationship. To determine the most appropriate support relationship for accomplishing the ADA mission, the following questions need to be answered:

  • Who establishes ADA priorities?
  • Who positions ADA fire units?
  • Who coordinates terrain on which ADA will position fire units?
  • With whom should liaison be established?
  • With whom should communications be established?

STAFF COORDINATION

It is imperative that the platoon leader maintain coordination with the supported unit's staff throughout the planning process. Examples of information coordinated with the supported task force are listed below and in the Supported Force/ADA Platoon Leader Responsibilities illustration.

S1 Section

The platoon leader will give the S1 a battle roster of authorized and on-hand personnel by military occupational specialty (MOS) and grade. He must also coordinate to integrate platoon casualty evacuation into the task force (TF) plan. Routine personnel reports required by the supported unit, such as personnel status reports, must be submitted as specified in the supported unit's tactical SOP (TACSOP).

S2 Section

The platoon leader assists the task force S2 in the development of the air intelligence preparation of the battlefield (IPB). The platoon leader must pay particular attention to enemy air avenues that can influence the supported force's area of operations. Enemy air avenues and corresponding air named areas of interest (NAIs) must be depicted on the task force intelligence overlay. Time permitting, the battery commander should provide this information to the platoon leader.

S3 Section

The platoon leader recommends ADA priorities to the supported commander and helps the S3 integrate air defense into the task force scheme of maneuver. During the planning process, the platoon platoon leader or designated LNO (PSG or section sergeant) will assist in development of any graphics dealing with his platoon's scheme of maneuver. The platoon leader will receive a copy of the supported force's final operational graphics with the operation order (OPORD). These graphics must be disseminated to the sergeant and squad leaders.

S4 Section

While the platoon sergeant executes logistics for the platoon, the platoon leader must conduct initial coordination with the supported force. The PSG will conduct additional coordination with the supported force S4 or support platoon leader, as well as the ADA battery first sergeant. The platoon sergeant may contact the supported force on its administrative/logistics (ADMIN/LOG) radio net to conduct routine functions and submit reports required by the supported force SOPs. More information on logistics is contained in Chapter 7.

Engineer

Once the supported unit obstacle plan and engineer priorities for support have been specified, the BSFV platoon leader will coordinate with the supported force engineer. If the BSFV platoon is scheduled to receive engineer support for the mission, direct coordination with the supported force engineer is required to coordinate specific vehicle location requirements.

Fire Support Officer

The platoon leader's coordination with the fire support officer (FSO) may include the following type and location of targets and target reference points (TRPs), Army Airspace Command and Control (A2C2) information, and current fire support information. Full integration with the fire support scheme of maneuver is imperative for mission accomplishment.

COMBAT ORDERS

Combat orders are the tools with which leaders and staffs transmit battle plans to subordinate units. The Army has developed standard combat order formats; however, units often modify or augment basic combat order formats to meet their specific needs.

Combat arms platoon leaders may issue orders either verbally or in writing, depending on time available. Optimally, combat orders should reference unit SOPs to enhance brevity and clarity.

BSFV platoons will use a combination of combat order formats. In addition to the orders format used by the parent air defense artillery battery, the platoon leader must use the supported unit's orders format. This section will list the most frequently used combat orders and describe the basic information included in each.

Warning Order

Warning orders notify subordinate units of future missions. Normally, warning orders include an anticipated upcoming mission statement, any changes to task organization, any movement instructions to position units for the upcoming mission, a general description of the area of operations, an intelligence update, and time and location for issue of the operation order. The warning order should be brief. It may be disseminated via radio or messenger. A sample warning order is in Appendix A.

Operation Order

An OPORD is a complete order issued to units prior to a specific mission or a series of missions. It follows the format topics listed below:

  • Situation.
  • Mission.
  • Execution.
  • Service Support.
  • Command and Signal.

OPORD formats are frequently modified by units to meet their specific needs while adhering to the standard five-paragraph format. OPORD will contain annexes for each paragraph to more completely describe the actions and events. BSFV platoon leaders will write the air defense annex to the supported unit's OPORD. Depending on the parent air defense artillery battery and supported unit SOPs, the air defense annex may be written fully or in matrix format. An example of an air defense annex is in Appendix A.

Fragmentary Order

A fragmentary order (FRAGO) is an abbreviated form of an OPORD. A FRAGO is used to update existing OPORDs. Examples of information contained in FRAGOs are changes in enemy situation, friendly task organization, mission, graphic control measures, commander's intent, and scheme of maneuver. During extended operations, units will publish an initial OPORD and update it with FRAGOs for each follow-on mission. Like warning orders, FRAGOs are usually brief oral or written messages. An example of a FRAGO is in Appendix A.

PLATOON TROOP-LEADING PROCEDURES

Upon receipt of an order, combat arms platoon leaders must begin their own planning process. Troop-leading procedures are designed to focus the leader's effort, given the time available, on preparations for the ensuing mission. BSFV platoon leaders must understand the steps of troop-leading procedures and practice them to implement them efficiently for each mission. This section addresses standard troop-leading procedures and how each step applies to the BSFV platoon leader.

Step One -- Receive the Mission

Upon mission receipt, the platoon leader must conduct an initial mission analysis as well as begin to prepare the platoon for its next mission. The ADA mission, as well as the task force mission, must be considered. For timely mission analysis of both air defense and task force requirements, the platoon leader will enhance the efficiency of the planning process by considering the following:

  • What is the restated mission (task and purpose)?
  • Who is the enemy (unit, size, and type)?
  • Where is the area of operations (is movement required; when must it start)?
  • Who is attached? What are the detachments and when are they gained or lost?
  • What is the available time (time for further planning, when to issue the warning order, FRAGO or OPORD)?

Step Two -- Issue a Warning Order

The platoon leader issues a warning order to the platoon upon receipt of a warning order from higher headquarters. The warning order is refined upon receipt of the OPORD or FRAGO. The platoon leader informs the platoon of upcoming mission information, initial preparations that must be made, when and where a detailed OPORD will be issued, and any other information that he can give the platoon to aid in its preparations.

Step Three -- Make a Tentative Plan

The platoon leader begins planning by reviewing the information gleaned during mission analysis. Backward planning, based on the analysis of available time, must be conducted. The initial timeline must be disseminated to the platoon as soon as possible and be updated as necessary (see the Backward Planning Checklist in Appendix D). The result of backward planning will result in a timeline that may include the following events:

  • Mission execution time (line of departure or defend no later than time).
  • OPORD issue time.
  • Movement time between positions.
  • Emplacement time.

Depending on the command and support relationship, the BSFV platoon leader may or may not receive an AD plan from his battery commander. If he does, this plan may be given by the battery commander via various means (radio, facsimile (FAX), and so forth) due to battery dispersion and time available. This plan may be general, depending on information available. The AD plan will normally include the air defense artillery task organization, current situation, battery mission, supported unit commander's intent, and scheme of maneuver for the supported unit.

Based on the command and support relationship, the BSFV platoon leader will conduct parallel planning with the supported unit's staff. This occurs during the staff planning process. The BSFV platoon leader, as the senior air defender of the supported force, is the commander of the BSFV platoon, supported force commander's air defense advisor, as well as the staff air defense officer. Integration with the supported force staff during the planning process and an understanding of the planning process used by the supported force are imperative for proper mission planning. The BSFV platoon leader must align his air defense plan and his plan for positioning of his fire units with the phases specified in the supported force's scheme of maneuver.

During the planning process, the platoon leader must ensure that any additions or changes to mission-specific information are immediately disseminated to the platoon (that is, linkup time and location with subordinate units, current task force/company team locations, changes to task organization, and so forth).

The AD plan will continue to be adjusted based on the maneuver plan. Each task force will receive the brigade order containing the completed ADA annex. The BSFV platoon leader must review the ADA annex in the brigade operation order. This written annex contains the AD plan that will provide the BSFV platoon leader information on the following:

  • Ground and air IPB.
  • The sensor plan.
  • Enemy aviation command and control (C2) facilities targeted by the division.
  • Locations where the platoons may be employed.
  • The A2C2 plan.
  • The logistics plan.

The platoon leader should have sufficient information from the battery AD plan to synchronize his air defense plan with the supported task force scheme of maneuver. He must also consider the following information: mission, commander's intent, and RISTA threat.

Leaders must follow a logical process when analyzing the mission requirements. The commander's estimate of the situation includes an analysis of mission, enemy, terrain, troops, and time available (METT-T). The platoon must be aware of the factors of METT-T and how they apply at platoon level. METT-T must be applied during mission analysis for both air defense requirements and the ground scheme of maneuver. Following are examples of questions that may be considered during mission analysis:

  • What is the mission? What are the specified and implied tasks? What is the commander's intent? If the BSFV platoon is direct support to a task force, the BSFV platoon leader must conduct mission analysis for both the AD mission and the supported task force mission.
  • Where is the enemy, and what is its strength? What is the enemy air threat? What weapons does it have that can affect the supported force? What can it do in response to the platoon's actions? What are its weaknesses and how can the platoon exploit them? The BSFV platoon leader must consider the ground threat as well as the enemy air threat.
  • What is the impact of terrain and weather on both air and ground operations? Observation and fields of fire, cover and concealment, obstacles, key terrain, and avenues of approach (OCOKA) should also be considered.
  • What are the conditions of personnel and vehicles? What is the status of ammunition, fuel, and supplies? Who is best able to do a specific task? What is the crew endurance (rest) plan? What other assets are available to support the mission? What are the other ADA platoons in the supported force doing? Who and where are the adjacent ADA units?
  • How much time is available for planning and mission preparation prior to mission execution? How long will it take to position assets and prepare positions if necessary? When can the platoon re-hearse? The platoon leader should adhere to the 1/3 - 2/3 planning rule and take no more than 1/3 of the time allocated to prepare his order and disseminate the order to his platoon, allowing 2/3 of the time available for squad planning and preparation. It is imperative that BSFV platoon leaders do not spend so much time producing the platoon operations order and ADA annex that task force directed preparation tasks are overlooked. Responsibilities for some preparation tasks may be delegated to the platoon sergeant or squad leaders (pre-combat inspections, leader's recons, and linkup operations).

Once the timeline is complete, the platoon leader will begin to plan his concept for air defense coverage based on higher headquarters plans. At the same time, he will begin to plan his platoon's ground scheme of maneuver based on the supported force's ground scheme of maneuver. To begin planning, the platoon leader must have an understanding of enemy air and ground avenues of approach, the supported force mission and scheme of maneuver, and the supported force commander's intent.

When developing the plan for air defense coverage of any supported force, the platoon leader must consider the six air defense artillery employment guidelines. These guidelines aid air defenders at all levels when planning for air defense coverage.

Early engagement. Fire units must be positioned so they are capable of engaging enemy air platforms before they can release their ordnance on, or gain intelligence about, friendly forces. With the mobility provided by the BSFV, fire units should be located well forward and integrated into the supported task force scheme of maneuver. In the less likely mission of de-fending a static asset, fire units should be positioned forward of the supported force along likely enemy air avenues of approach.

Weighted coverage. Once the supported force commander designates his main effort, BSFV fire units should be positioned along the most likely air avenues of approach to support the commander's main effort. This massing of firepower increases the BSFV platoon's probability of killing enemy air targets. It is extremely important that a detailed, in-depth air IPB be developed prior to deciding whereto establish weight coverage of air defense assets. Air defense will focus its effort on the most likely avenues of approach along the supported force commander's designated main effort.

Depth. Depth is achieved by positioning fire units so threat air platforms encounter a continuous volume of fire as they approach the protected force and or asset. The BSFV platoon leader achieves depth by positioning his assets so that they can provide continuous fires along enemy air avenues, destroying the enemy as it advances toward the protected force and or asset. Depth is maximized through the integration of all air defense weapons used in the defense. Additional air defense assets on the battlefield such as Stinger teams, Avenger fire units, HIMAD assets, and combined arms air defense efforts from ground forces contribute to the creation of depth on the battlefield.

Balanced fires. Balanced fires are created by positioning air defense weapons to distribute fires equally in all directions. Except for the mission of defense of a static asset, where no clear avenues of approach are identified, this guideline will seldom be employed. As an example, on a flat, open battlefield, characteristic of a desert environment, no specific air corridors exist. In this scenario, planning for balanced fires may be viable.

Mutual support. Mutual support is achieved by positioning weapons to complement fires from adjacent fire units, thus preventing the enemy from attacking one position without being subjected to fire from one or more adjacent positions. Mutual support will enhance volume of fire as well as cover dead space of adjacent units. The planning range for mutual support for Stinger systems is approximately 2,000 meters.

Overlapping fires. Fire units should be positioned so engagement envelopes overlap. In many instances because of terrain limitations, the size of the area to be covered, or a scarcity of available Stinger systems, the air defense planner should attempt to enhance the AD protection of the force and or asset by ensuring engagement envelopes overlap. The planning range for over-lapping fires for Stinger systems is approximately 4,000 meters.

In developing the plan, the BSFV platoon leader will incorporate a mix of guidelines in his coverage plan, according to the mission, availability, limitations, and survivability of ADA assets; the tactical situation; and the threat. Integrating all guidelines into the plan will seldom be possible or desirable. The most important guidelines for the BSFV platoon leader to consider normally include early engagement, weighted coverage, and depth.

Planning guidelines for developing the platoon's ground scheme of maneuver will incorporate those topics considered in developing the air defense coverage plan. The platoon leader will consider METT-T and OCOKA in development of his plan.

The platoon leader will determine the best positions for both himself and the platoon sergeant based on the following:

  • Platoon task organization.
  • Location of the supported force command post.
  • Platoon dispersion.
  • Routes between locations.
  • Survivability of locations.
  • Communications with air defense network.

Initial positions for individual BSFVs will be determined by considering--

  • Maximum observation and fields of fire on high ground over probable air avenues of approach.
  • Depth.
  • Communications with platoon leader, platoon sergeant, adjacent squads, crews, and sensors.
  • Routes to and from positions.
  • Protection against ground attack.

Platoon leaders must coordinate fire unit positions with the supported force. Sensors may be attached to the platoon. If so, platoon leaders must also coordinate sensor positions. Sensor positions should be selected based on their ability to effectively provide early warning (EW) to the unit. The platoon leader informs the battery commander of the tentative plan, then updates as necessary.

Step Four -- Initiate Necessary Movement

Movement should begin as soon as possible following receipt of the warning order. Often, movement will occur simultaneously with the initiation of the planning process. Normally, the platoon leader reports to the supported TF tactical operations center (TOC) and begins the planning process with the TF staff. The platoon sergeant conducts resupply operations for the platoon and the initial coordination for linkup with the supported force. The platoon should be positioned to ease support of the upcoming mission.

Step Five -- Conduct Reconnaissance

If possible, a ground reconnaissance of the area in which the supported force will fight must be made. This is often possible for defensive operations but harder to accomplish for offensive operations. Reconnaissance of the ground on which the platoon will fight will confirm or deny the tentative plan. For the BSFV platoon leader in support of a maneuver task force, reconnaissance efforts will normally be completed in conjunction with the task force reconnaissance. At least, a map reconnaissance of the area in which the supported force will fight must be made.

Step Six -- Complete the Plan

Based on the reconnaissance, the plan will be adjusted and detail normally will be added. The air defense annex to the supported force OPORD will be completed, and the platoon OPORD will be finalized.

Step Seven -- Issue the Operation Order

Orders may be issued verbally or in writing. When issuing orders, leaders must ensure that each soldier knows how the mission is to be accomplished and how he fits into the plan. Squad leaders should provide the platoon leader with a backbrief to ensure squad leaders fully understand the mission and their required tasks. Include orientation on terrain if possible. Sand tables and terrain models are effective tools to use if time is available for their construction.

Step Eight -- Rehearse, Execute, and Supervise

Rehearsals should be conducted prior to each mission. They can be conducted on the ground, over the radio, or on sand tables or terrain boards. Time permitting, all personnel in the platoon should attend the rehearsals; often, only the platoon leader, platoon sergeant, and squad leaders will attend platoon rehearsals. The platoon's execution matrix is the script for the rehearsals. The platoon must leave the rehearsal with a clear understanding of its mission and where it fits into the supported force scheme of maneuver.

The BSFV platoon leader is an important attendee at the supported force rehearsals. He will explain the air defense plan to support the scheme of maneuver for each phase of the operation and describe its integration into the supported force scheme of maneuver. Final coordination with the supported force staff may occur at the rehearsal. ADA integration in the planning, preparation, and execution phases of the mission is critical. Usually integration will occur concurrently at respective levels within the supported force. See the ADA Planning Process illustration.

Supervision and execution will fall into place if a solid plan has been developed. The platoon leader must ensure vehicles are incorrect positions, radio nets are monitored, and the platoon is ready to execute according to its matrix. Experience will enable the platoon leader to make decisions during execution, based on changing enemy actions and modifications to the supported force scheme of maneuver.

CONTROL

Combat units at all levels are controlled on the battlefield through two major control methods: positive and procedural. This section will discuss the various types of positive and procedural control measures the BSFV platoon uses to accomplish its mission.

POSITIVE CONTROL MEASURES

Positive control measures are normally developed through use of existing equipment and systems. Air defense positive control measures include the identification, friend or foe (IFF) system and early warning systems and sensors.

Early Warning and Sensors

Early warning sensors are an air defense unit's primary resource for locating aerial targets. Early warning sensors are employed to observe aerial NAIs and decision points (DPs). The sensors report aerial target information on the early warning (EW) net.

Early warning gives the initiative to the air defender. Accurate and timely early warning allows the BSFV to attack the aerial threat and also assist the maneuver commander in protecting his forces. There are numerous methods used to pass early warning information. Early warning dissemination requires careful coordination to ensure that the information gets to those who need it at the proper place and time and in the proper terminology. Maneuver units must disseminate applicable early warning to subordinate maneuver elements.

Directed Early Warning

Directed early warning must be quick, simple, and redundant in nature. It is imperative that all units, including the supported force, receive early warning. It is especially important that units with no air defense assets receive all early warning. It states whether the aerial targets are friendly or unknown, provides a cardinal direction, and if known, identifies the most likely affected asset(s) within the supported force. For example, if an early warning source reports four enemy Hinds inbound from the east, and 1st Brigade is attacking along the eastern axis, the BSFV platoon leader should transmit a local air defense warning (LADW) message over both the maneuver force command net and the platoon net: "Dynamite! Dynamite! Hinds from the east against Axis Blue!" Dynamite is the LADW that alerts the maneuver force of an attack; the response, according to the local SOP should be immediate.

PROCEDURAL CONTROL MEASURES

Procedural control measures are control measures developed through established rules and standing operating procedures. Procedural control relies upon techniques such as segmenting airspace by volume and time and using weapon control statuses. Procedural techniques are usually more restrictive than positive techniques but are less vulnerable to degradation from electronic or physical attack.

Air Defense Warnings

Air defense warnings (ADWs) are established by the corps or area air defense commander. Authority to declare ADWs may be delegated to corps commanders. In no case can the platoon ADW be of a lower level than the overall ADW issued by higher authority however, the platoon's ADW can be higher. When received, ADWs apply to the entire force or a specific area and must be disseminated to every soldier within the force. At the brigade level and below, air defense warnings are disseminated over redundant nets along with LADWs. See the following illustration.

Local Air Defense Warning

Local air defense warning is designed to alert a particular unit, several units, or an area of the battlefield. LADW parallels ADWs and reflects the local aerial threat. It should be incorporated into SOPs which explain what response is desired by the supported force. For example, when Dynamite precedes ADW red, the affected force may stop to increase passive air defense and engage with a combined arms response. The response desired by the affected force is METT-T dependent. See the Local Air Defense Warnings illustration.

Fire Control Orders

Fire control orders are commands used to control engagements on an individual basis, regardless of the prevailing weapon control status (WCS). For the BSFV platoon, fire control orders are normally issued by the immediate ADA commander (squad leader). The squad leader initiates orders for fire control purposes and for ensuring safety. Fire control orders are--

  • Cease Fire: Gunner does not fire--continues to track.
  • Hold Fire: Gunner ceases all tactical action, to include tracking (resume search of assigned sector).
  • Engage: Gunner fires.
  • Cease Engagement Gunner changes an ongoing engagement from one target to another of higher priority. This order accompanies direction to engage new target.

Rules of Engagement

Rules of engagement (ROE) are used to control fires to protect friendly forces and to maintain the needed level of defense. The ROE tell the BSFV squad what, when, and where they may shoot. There are three primary ROE which are applicable to the BSFV.

Right of self-defense. Right of self-defense is never denied. The ADA fire unit always has the right to defend itself or its protected asset.

Hostile criteria. ADA squad leaders have both identification and engagement authority. The exact criteria enabling the fire unit to declare a target hostile may vary with the tactical situation. Hostile criteria may include--

  • Attacking friendly elements.
  • Violating airspace control measures.
  • Being visually identified as hostile.
  • Responding improperly or not at all to IFF interrogation.

BSFV crews must visually identify aerial targets prior to engagement. The BSFV squad leader has engagement authority. The target must satisfy one or more of the theater hostile criteria.

Weapon control status. Weapon control status (WCS) describes the degree of control for air defense fires. WCS applies 10 weapon systems, volumes of airspace, and types of aerial threats. The degree or extent of control varies depending on the tactical situation. The corps commander usually has WCS authority for rotary-wing aerial threats. ADA forces must have the ability to receive and disseminate WCS. WCSs are--

  • WEAPONS FREE--Fire at any aerial threat not positively identified as friendly. This is the least restrictive status.
  • WEAPONS TIGHT--Fire only at aerial threats positively identified as hostile.
  • WEAPONS HOLD--Do not fire except in self-defense. The term self-defense includes defense of the fire unit, supported unit, and protected asset. This is the most restrictive status.

Autonomous operations. Autonomous operations are implemented when communications with the battery or higher controlling headquarters are lost for any reason. The platoon or squad leader must lake immediate action to reestablish communications. Specific actions will be listed in the battery SOP. If communications are lost, the WCS will remain the same. If a time limit is placed on the weapon control status, the fire unit will maintain that status until this time limit expires and then revert to WEAPONS TIGHT. If the fire unit is in a WEAPONS HOLD status and a time limit was not established, it will maintain that status for 30 minutes and then revert to WEAPONS TIGHT. If the fire unit is using WEAPONS FREE and a time limit was established, the same rule applies as in WEAPONS HOLD. If no time limit was established for a fire unit using WEAPONS FREE, it will immediately revert to WEAPONS TIGHT. See the following illustration.

AIR AND GROUND DIRECT FIRE CONTROL MEASURES

The differences in Stinger and gun turret weapon systems and the engagement techniques used require separate control measures for each weapon system. For aerial targets, ADA fire units are assigned sectors of fire and primary target lines. These are designated by the platoon leader after a review of fire unit positions to ensure that all aerial targets threatening the protected assets can be engaged. These measures assist in the distribution of air defense fires against multiple targets threatening from different directions. Each fire unit concentrates its fires on the most threatening aerial target within its assigned sector or closest to its primary target line (PTL). The following Stinger control measures provide efficient fires and reduce the probability of simultaneous engagements from two or more systems.

Stinger Control Measures

The following Stinger control measures provide efficient fires and reduce the probability of simultaneous engagements from two or more systems.

Primary target line. A PTL is an azimuth along which the gunner will focus his attention.

Sectors of fire (SOF). Sectors of fire are specified by left and right limits. A sector of fire aids target detection and identification of aerial targets. The fire unit will focus its attention (both searching and firing) within the designated sector. See the Sector of Fire and PTL illustration.

Selection Criteria. The assignment of a sector of fire and PTL does not restrict the Stinger team to look only in that sector. Given two targets of equal capability within the sector of fire, the target closest in range to the PTL will be engaged first. Platoon leaders will ensure assignment of PTLs and sector of fire for each system during the planning of the operation. See the Single and Multiple Targets Selection Criteria illustration.

Gun Turret Weapon Systems Control Measures

The 25-mm automatic gun, coaxial machine gun, and TOW control measures dictate the placement of their fires. By using the following control measures, the BSFV crew can correctly and safely engage targets.

Primary target line. PTL is an azimuth along which the gunner will focus his attention.

Sectors of fire. Sectors of fire are specified by left and right limits. A sector of fire aids target detection and identification of aerial targets. The fire unit will focus its attention within the designated sector. The BSFV should not fire outside of its sector of fire and must coordinate fires with the supported force.

ADDITIONAL CONTROL MEASURES

In addition to weapons control measures, the BSFV platoon leader must consider the control procedures associated with communications and airspace. The descriptions in the following paragraphs explain how volumes of airspace can be used.

Radio Transmissions

Radio transmissions should be brief to reduce the EW signature. Using a secure means or operational and numerical codes will also reduce the chance of enemy detection. Use low power transmissions and terrain to mask signals from enemy direction-finding equipment. Messengers or wire should be used for lengthy messages. BSFV platoons must practice the use of SOIs, SOPs, and operational terms.

Supplemental Fire Control Measures

Supplemental fire control measures (SFCMs) are procedures which delineate or modify hostile criteria, delegate identification authority, or serve strictly as aids in fire distribution or airspace control. The BSFV platoon leader must understand these procedures to take advantage of any vertical and horizontal integration with HIMAD, aviation, or air force units. The most commonly used measures in the maneuver force area are weapon engagement zones, high-density airspace control zones (HIDACZ), and temporary airspace restrictions.

Weapon engagement zone. Weapon engagement zone (WEZ) identifies a volume of defined airspace within which a specific type of AD weapon is preferred for use in an engagement. Use of WEZ does not preclude engagement of high-priority targets by more than one type of weapon system if centralized control of each weapon system involved is available.

High-density airspace control zone. The corps commander may establish a HIDACZ with approval of the airspace control authority (ACA). A HIDACZ allows the corps commander to control the use of a particular volume of airspace. A HIDACZ also allows the controlling authority to declare WCS. An example would be if the division commander wanted to execute a joint air attack team (JAAT) mission.

Temporary airspace restrictions. Temporary airspace restrictions can be imposed on segments of airspace of defined dimensions in response to specific situations and requirements. These can include combat air patrol (CAP) operations, air refueling areas, HIDACZ, concentrated interdiction areas, and those areas which have been declared ADA WEAPONS FREE. The promulgation of such restrictions will include--

  • Identification of the airspace user being restricted.
  • Period, area, altitude, and height of restriction.
  • Procedures for cancellation of modification of the restriction in the event of communications loss.

Airspace Control Measures

Airspace control measures afford the commander a variety of procedural methods of controlling airspace and restricting airspace users. Airspace control measures are the rules and mechanisms promulgated by joint and allied doctrine and defined by the theater air-space control plan. They are defined in general terms according to the normal usage associated with the control measure. The precise dimensions of various control measures (for example, low-level transit routes) and those techniques used in their arrangement and application are specified and defined by the theater airspace control plan and ACA directives. The following illustration explains airspace control measures available to provide procedural control for airspace users.

COMMUNICATIONS

One of the BSFV platoon leader's most essential systems is his radio system. It is with this system that he is able to command and control his platoon, stay in touch with his battery, monitor the early warning network, and maintain communications with the supported force. Maintenance of radio nets within the platoon, with the supported unit, and with the parent air defense battery is a challenge for the BSFV platoon leader. He must maintain--

  • Control of the air battle.
  • Command, administrative, and logistical communications with higher headquarters.
  • Contact with supported units.

This section will outline standard communications networks that are used by the BSFV platoon. Unit SOPs will develop networks that modify those described here; however, the BSFV platoon leader must be flexible enough to operate within differing communications networks used by various supported units.

COMMUNICATIONS REQUIREMENTS

The minimum communications requirements the platoon leader must maintain include the following nets:

  • Battery command net.
  • Platoon command net.
  • Supported force command net.
  • EW net.

See the following illustration.

Most units are not equipped with sufficient communications equipment to monitor the required nets. One technique to facilitate this is to make a platoon radio net matrix. See the illustration below.

Since he realizes your radio situation, the battery commander will normally eavesdrop on his subordinate platoon nets, thereby freeing the platoon to monitor the other nets above. In this case, the ADA unit should develop all SOPs to determine when platoons should transmit on the battery command net. Examples are situation updates and aircraft engagement reports. In all situations, the BSFV platoon leader must comply with communications requirements established in the battery and supported force SOPs.

Depending on the availability of radios and the tactical situation, the BSFV platoon may be required to operate on the following radio nets:

  • Supported force intelligence net.
  • Sensor early warning net.
  • Supported force ADMIN/LOG net.

Regardless of the tactical situation, the BSFV platoon leader establishes those nets that are required by the supported force or ADA unit being reinforced and complies with SOPS imposed by those forces.

DISMOUNTED STINGER TEAM COMMUNICATIONS

The BSFV Stinger team's ability to effectively react to rapidly changing conditions on a fluid battlefield is dependent on efficient and reliable communications. Digital, radio, wire, and visual signals provide the necessary means to effectively communicate with a dismounted team in offensive and defensive operations. If available, digital communications are the primary means of early warning communications for the Stinger team. As a backup to digital communications, the team requires man-portable FM communications.

Offensive Operations Communications Considerations

Dismounting the Stinger team in support of an offensive mission will be influenced by the factors of METT-T and air threat. During an offensive mission, the employment of the Stinger team will be quick and usually a short distance away from the BSFV. Once dismounted, communications are challenging.

Ideally, the Stinger team will receive digital alerting and cueing information. Command and control of the Stinger team by the BSFV squad leader will be accomplished using voice communications. If the communications equipment available to the platoon does not support digital and voice communications, techniques and procedures must be developed to facilitate effective communications.

Communications techniques and procedures that may reduce communications shortfalls are as follows:

  • Use the orientation of the 25-mm automatic gun to cue the Stinger team on the direction of the aerial platform.
  • Use the orientation of the hull to indicate the direction of the aerial platform's approach. This technique allows the 25-mm automatic gun to orient on secondary threats while the Stinger focuses on the primary air threat.
  • Hand and arm signals can be employed by the BSFV squad leader to cue the Stinger team. It is recommended that BSFV platoons use standard Army visual signals, although BSFV platoons may have to develop specific visual signals which are not addressed in Army publications. GTA 17-2-9 should be used as a guide when developing visual signals.
  • Use color-coded flags as a visual signal to communicate fire control orders. For example, a red flag displayed by the squad leader may indicate an aerial platform has been identified as hostile and engagement is authorized.

Techniques and procedures which are developed to reduce communications equipment shortfalls will only be effective if they are understood by the entire BSFV platoon. The techniques and procedures which are developed must be trained and rehearsed on a recurring basis.

Defensive Operations Communications Considerations

In defensive operations, dismounted Stinger team operations are equally as complex. Depending on the air IPB and factors of METT-T, the Stinger team may be located one kilometer away from the BSFV. This situation will require BSFV squads to be relentlessly innovative in reducing these challenges. Defensive operations communications requirements are the same as for offensive operations. The primary difference between offensive and defensive operations is the dismounted Stinger team is employed in a stationary position. The stationary defensive posture of the team may allow the squad leader to--

  • Remote the simplified handheld terminal unit (SHTU) from the BSFV to the Stinger team's position. This will provide digital alerting and cueing information.
  • Use wire communications more extensively.
  • Share communications equipment with task force elements in the vicinity.

The communications means employed should not hamper the BSFV squad's ability to mount the Stinger team and reposition in a timely manner. For example, recovering wire used for communications is time-intensive and may not support hasty displacement to another position.

COMMUNICATIONS EQUIPMENT

BSFV platoon communications equipment varies depending on the organizational structure. Equipment authorizations indicate the BSFV platoon is authorized the single-channel ground and airborne radio system (SINCGARS) radio equipment.

MEANS OF COMMUNICATIONS

The BSFV platoon leader can choose from a number of different communications means: radio, wire, messenger, visual, and in the future, digital. Different means should be used when possible so that the platoon does not depend only on one means. Depending on the situation, one means of communications is often more effective than another. The following criteria must be considered when deciding which means to use:

  • Reliability.
  • Installation time.
  • Transmission time.

The platoon leader selects the most effective and se-cure, yet least restrictive, communications means.

Wire Communications

The platoon hot loop is for use in static asset defenses, night defensive positions, or on defensive perimeters. Each ADA squad has a sound- powered telephone, and WD-1 wire.

Radio Communications

The radio is the platoon's most flexible means of communications. It can quickly transmit information over long distances with great accuracy. However, without secure equipment, the radio is vulnerable to enemy interception. All vehicles of the platoon should monitor the platoon net.

COMMUNICATIONS SECURITY

Communications security preventive techniques are employed to safeguard communications. These include all measures taken to avoid enemy detection and to deny the enemy any useful information about friendly forces. The most effective preventive technique is to keep all communications as short as possible, especially radio transmissions and transmission times. Communications security techniques reduce the effectiveness of enemy spot and barrage jamming efforts. Specific procedures are covered in FM 24-33.



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