Military

(1) Roof Characteristics. Flat roofs, pitched roofs, domed roofs, and roofs with towers or air conditioning units on top will aid in visual and thermal acquisition. Additional structural features revealed in imagery will aid in confirmation. This method of terrain association may prove invaluable for identification and recognition since structures are often too close to rely on mere grid coordinates.

(2) Visual Markings. The visual signaling or marking of positions makes determining the location of friendly forces easier. During building clearing operations, the progress of friendly units (both horizontally and vertically) may be marked with spray paint or bed sheets hung out of windows. Often, the simplest methods are the best. Traditional signaling devices, such as flares, strobes, and signaling mirrors, may be effective as well. Target marking or an orientation on enemy positions may also be accomplished using signaling procedures. The use of GLINT tape, combat ID panels, and IR beacons assist in the identification of friendly ground forces on urban terrain. Standardized usage of ground lighting, thermal contrast, and interposition of structures influence the effectiveness of these devices.

(3) Shadows. During both high and low ambient light conditions, expect to see significant urban shadowing from buildings when lights from the urban area are present. Shadows will hide personnel and or vehicular targets, like the shadows that hide small hills against the background of larger mountains. Shadows will hide targets that are not thermally significant, but thermal targets should still be seen. A combination of sensors must be used to acquire and identify the target; therefore, a sensor hand-off plan must be thoroughly briefed.

(4) GPS. The use of aircraft with integrated GPS reduces the amount of time spent finding the target area. If ground forces can provide accurate coordinates, inputting a target grid into the GPS or inertial navigation system (INS) provides fire control cues (range, heading, time) to the target, which aids in quicker target acquisition and helps distinguish friendly forces from enemy forces.

(1) Urban terrain typically creates corridors of visibility running between structures. Street-level targets are only visible along the street axis or from high angles. The interposition of structures around a target interrupts line of sight (LOS) from many directions. The presence of buildings and other structures in urban terrain creates corridors of visibility along streets, rivers, and railways. LOS must be maintained for enough time to acquire the target, achieve a weapons delivery solution, and fly to those parameters.

(2) This timeline is reduced during the employment of the AH-64D. Its precise navigation system enables the aircraft to slave its sensors and weapons to a stored target, thereby significantly reducing target acquisition times. In some cases, the AH-64D may employ the gun or FFARs in an "area supression" mode and never have to expose the aircraft to the target area.

(3) Visibility limitations on marking devices in the urban environment are geometric in nature. The use of any pointer or laser requires LOS. In addition, the aircraft must have LOS with the target to see the mark. Urban terrain severely limits LOS opportunities. Due to the close proximity of structures to one another, there may be very narrow fields of view and limited axes of approach.

(1) Hard, smooth, flat surfaces with 90-degree angles are characteristic of man-made targets. Due to aviation delivery parameters, munitions will normally strike a target at an angle less than 90 degrees. This may reduce the effect of munitions and increase the chance of ricochets. The tendency of rounds to strike glancing blows against hard surfaces means that up to 25 percent of impact-fused rounds may not detonate when fired onto rubbled areas.

(2) Identification and engagement times are short.

(3) Depression and elevation limits create dead space. Target engagement from oblique angles, both horizontal and vertical, must be considered.

(4) Smoke, dust, and shadows mask targets. Additionally, rubble and man-made structures can mask fires. Targets, even those at close range, tend to be indistinct.

(5) Urban fighting often involves units attacking on converging routes. The risks from friendly fires, ricochets, and fratricide must be considered during the planning of operations.

(6) The effect of the weapon and the position of friendly and enemy personnel with relation to structures must be considered. Chose weapons for employment based on their effects against the building's material composition rather than against enemy personnel.

(7) Munitions can produce secondary effects, such as fires.

(1) The holding area should be in the sector of the ground maneuver battalion involved in close combat. The holding area may be a concealed position or an aerial holding area that allows for final coordination between the attack team leader and the ground unit leader. It must be located within frequency modulated (FM) radio range of all units involved. Alternate holding areas, along with ingress and egress routes, must be designated if occupation is expected to last longer than 15 minutes.

(2) The brigade also provides the call signs and frequencies of single-channel ground and air radio system (SINCGARS), Hopsets, and communications security (COMSEC) information regarding the battalion in contact. If the unit is SINCGARS-equipped, the attack team must also have the common "time," which may be taken from global positioning systems (GPSs).

(3) In addition, the brigade provides a current situation update for their AO and specifically for the supported battalions AO. This will include a recommended engagement area, which will allow for initial planning for battle positions (BPs) or attack by fire/support by fire positions (ABF/SBF) and possibly prevent unintentional overflight of enemy positions.

(1) Upon receiving the required information from the ground maneuver battalion, the attack team leader changes frequency to the ground company's FM command net to conduct final coordination before progressing on attack routes to BPs or ABF/SBF positions. Coordination begins with the ground maneuver company commander and ends with the leader of the lowest-level unit in contact.

(2) Regardless of which key leader the attack team leader conducts coordination with, the ground command net is the most suitable net on which both air and ground elements can conduct the operation. It allows all key leaders on the ground, including the fire support team (FIST) chief and the attack team leader and his attack crews, to communicate on one common net throughout the operation. Operating on the command net also allows the attack team to request responsive mortar fire for either suppression or immediate suppression of the enemy. The AH-64 Apache and the AH-1 Cobra are limited to only one FM radio due to aircraft configuration. However, the OH-58 is dual-FM capable, which gives the attack team leader the capability to maintain communications with the ground maneuver company, as well as its higher headquarters, or a fire support element (Figure 9-9).

(1) This check-in includes the attack team's present location, which is normally the ground or aerial holding area; the composition of the attack team; the armament load and weapons configuration; total station time; and the night-vision device capability of the attack team. In the event a ground holding area is not used because of METT-TC considerations, the attack team will select and occupy an aerial holding area within FM communications range until all required coordination is complete.

(2) The attack team leader and ground unit's key leaders must consider the effects on friendly forces of the various weapons carried by the attack aircraft prior to target selection and engagement (see figure TBD, SDZ for 30 mm, 2.75, and Hellfire). Weapon systems and munition selection for a given engagement is METT-TC dependent. Point target weapon systems, such as Hellfire or TOW, are the preferred system for armor or hardened targets when engaging targets in the close fight. The gun systems and the 2.75-inch rockets are the preferred system/munition for engaging troops in the open and for soft targets such as trucks and trenchworks. These area fire weapon systems pose a danger to friendly soldiers who may be in the lethality zone of the rounds or rockets. In this case, the leader on the ground must be very precise in describing the target he wants the aircraft to engage.

(1) After receipt of a request for immediate ACF, the attack team leader informs the ground unit leader of the battle position (BP), support-by-fire position (SBF), or the series of positions his team will occupy that provide the best observation and fields of fire into the engagement or target area.

(2) The attack team leader then provides the ground maneuver unit leader with his concept for the team's attack on the objective. This may be as simple as relaying the direction the aircraft will be coming from or attack route, time required to move forward from their current position, and the location of the BP. Only on completion of coordination with the lowest unit in contact does the flight depart the holding area for the battle position. As the attack team moves out of the holding area, it uses NOE flight along attack routes to mask itself from ground enemy observation and enemy direct fire systems. The attack team leader maintains FM communications with the ground unit leader while he maintains internal communications on either his very high frequency (VHF) or ultra high frequency (UHF) net.

(1) Technical Considerations for LZ/PZ Selection. The technical considerations for urban LZ/PZ selection are similar to those in natural terrain. The employment of Pathfinders or ground security elements is invaluable in the preparation of the LZ. Air traffic services (ATS) units can provide tactical air control team (TACT) support for LZs/PZs and they can also provide critical information such as LZ condition, enemy situation, and landing data. Communications should be established with ground elements at the LZ as early as possible during ingress.

(2) Tactical Considerations for LZ/PZ Selection. The tactical considerations for LZ/PZ selection, mission, location, and security are exaggerated in urbanized terrain. Missions may dictate the number and type of aircraft required and, therefore, the size of LZ selected. The opposite may also be true—the physical limitations of available LZs dictate the number of aircraft used. If there are more aircraft than a single LZ can accommodate, multiple LZs near the objective should be selected. Control measures must be adequate to safely deconflict the movement of all elements. Formations of helicopters should not be larger than the ability to simultaneously land on the LZ. All secondary or alternate LZs should be the same size (or larger) to prevent unnecessary stack-ups of exposed aircraft waiting to land. LZs should be located as close to the objective as possible to enable swift accomplishment of the ground mission. Generally, the more difficult the LZ and approach/departure paths are to observe from the ground or surrounding structures, the more easily the area can be secured.

(1) Weapon Utilization. Minimum arming range and minimum slant ranges within urban areas limit the usage of some weapons.

(2) Coordination. Heavy concentration of precision weapon systems along a narrow front may cause coordination problems.

(3) Laser Designation. Multiple flat, polished surfaces in an urban area may degrade laser use, thereby rendering some weapon systems useless.

(4) Limited Close Air Support. Heavily developed urban centers will limit the close air support. This is due to vulnerabilities at higher altitudes, thus placing a greater dependence on rotary-wing aircraft support.

(5) Need for Direct and Indirect Suppressive Ground Fires. Direct and indirect suppressive ground fire should augment the escort suppressive fires as helicopters approach intended landing zones.

(6) ROE. Operations could be in areas with a high concentration of civilians or cause significant collateral damage of property.

(7) Weapons Effects. Certain weapons may produce less or more damage on structures. Specific knowledge of weapons effects is critical to target destruction, the reduction of unnecessary collateral damage, and overall mission accomplishment. In addition, collateral damage may introduce the risk of exposure to toxic industrial materials (TIM).

(1) Small Arms. There is a high risk to aircraft from close-range, small arms fires that is complicated by the close proximity friendly forces and non-combatants.

(2) Exposure to Direct Fire. Small-arms fire may increase risk, as the urban area forces concentration of units and provides excellent cover and concealment.

(3) Individual Soldiers. The individual soldiers may be the greatest threat to rotary-wing aircraft in an urban environment.

(4) Detection of ADA. Portable surface to air missile systems will be difficult to detect in and among the buildings.

(5) Predictable Landing Zones. As landing zones may be scarce and therefore predictable, air assault operations in mass may be vulnerable to enemy fires.

(1) Most maps do not show the vertical development of the urban terrain.

(2) Accurate navigation in the urban environment requires familiarization with current military city maps which pilots have limited experience.

(3) The planning of missions will depend heavily on the upgraded photo-imagery products to make accurate assessments of key features.

(4) Newly developed areas and buildings may not appear on a navigational map.

(5) The numerous buildings and streets and few map references complicate navigation over built-up areas. Flight routes over urban terrain may increase employment time and fuel consumption.

(1) Continuous smoke and fire within the buildings cause obscuration.

(2) Urban areas directly affect weather, especially wind patterns.

(3) Night-vision systems are degraded due to city lights and thermal inversion.

(1) Buildings limit maneuverability and engagement ranges.

(2) Urbanized terrain masks intelligence and electronic warfare acquisition capabilities.

(3) Landing and pickup zones may be severely limited; operations from rooftops may be required.

(4) Vertical development blocking line-of-sight radio communication will severely affect air-to-ground and low-level air-to-air communication.