Military

a. Urban Operations. UO are operations planned and conducted in an area of operations (AO) that includes one or more urban areas. An urban area consists of a topographical complex where man-made construction or high population density is the dominant feature. UO usually occur when—

• The assigned objective lays within an urban area and cannot be bypassed.

• The urban area is key (or decisive) in setting and or shaping the conditions for current or future operations.

• An urban area is between two natural obstacles and cannot be bypassed.

• The urban area is in the path of a general advance and cannot be surrounded or bypassed.

• Political or humanitarian concerns require the control of an urban area or necessitate operations within it.

• Defending from urban areas supports a more effective overall defense or cannot be avoided.

• Occupation, seizure, and control of the urban area will deny the threat control of the urban area and the ability to impose its influence on both friendly military forces and the local civilian population. Therefore, friendly forces can retain the initiative and dictate the conditions for future operations.

b. METT-TC. The tactics, techniques and procedures (TTP) the commander selects for each mission, whether in open or urban terrain, are always dependent upon the factors of mission, enemy, terrain, troops, and time available. Traditionally, the acronym "METT-T" has been used to help leaders remember this set of factors as they plan a mission. An effect of the increasing importance of urban areas is the addition of civil considerations (METT-TC).

c. Urban Combat. These offensive and defensive operations are the part of UO that include a high density of Infantry-specific tasks. Urban combat operations are conducted to defeat an enemy on urban terrain who may be intermingled with noncombatants. Because of this intermingling, and the necessity to limit collateral damage, the rules of engagement (ROE) and the restrictions placed on the use of combat power may be more restrictive than under other combat conditions.

d. Categories of Urban Areas. An urban area is a concentration of structures, facilities, and people that form the economic and cultural focus for the surrounding area. Operations are affected by all five categories of urban areas. Cities, metropolises, and megalopolises with associated urban sprawl cover hundreds of square kilometers. Brigades and below normally operate in these urban areas as part of a larger force. Extensive combat in these urban areas involves units of division level and above.

• Villages (population of 3,000 inhabitants or less). The brigade's area of operations (AO) may contain many villages. Battalions and companies bypass, move through, defend from, and attack objectives within villages as a normal part of brigade operations.

• Towns (population of over 3,000 to 100,000 inhabitants and not part of a major urban complex). Operations in such areas normally involve brigades or divisions. Brigades may bypass, move through, defend in, or attack enemy forces in towns as part of division operations.

• City (population over 100,000 to 1 million inhabitants).

• Metropolis (population over 1 million to 10 million inhabitants).

• Megalopolis (population over 10 million inhabitants).

e. Conditions of Urban Operations. Due to political and societal changes that have taken place in the late twentieth century, advances in technology, and the Army's growing role in maintaining regional stability, UO is conducted across the full spectrum of offense, defense, stability, and support. The full spectrum of UO will affect how units must plan and execute their assigned missions. The enemy's actions significantly affect the conditions of UO, which may transition from one condition to another rapidly. Units may be conducting operations under different conditions at two locations at the same time. The following definitions of the three general conditions of UO provide clarity, focus, and a mental framework for commanders and leaders conducting tactical planning for UO.

f. Stability Operations and Support Operations. The Army has further categorized military operations other than war (MOOTW) as stability and support operations. Units conduct these operations, which are normally short of actual combat, to support national policy. Recent examples include famine relief operations in Mogadishu, Somalia; evacuation of noncombatants in Monrovia, Liberia; and peace enforcement in Bosnia.

g. Confusion and Crossover Between Conditions. As in Mogadishu, many types of operations may occur at the same time and certain types of operations can easily be transformed into others by enemy actions. The specific type of conditions may not have much meaning to the individual soldier, but the ROE must be understood and adhered to by all.

a. Army operational commanders assigned to conduct UO—

• Continually assess the urban environment to determine effects on operations.

• Conduct shaping operations that emphasize isolation and set the conditions for decisive operations.

• Dominate through simultaneous and or sequential operations that establish and maintain preeminent military control over the enemy, geographical area, or population.

• Plan for and execute transitions between mission types and forces, and ultimately to the control of a non-Army agency.

b. Brigades must plan for and be prepared to conduct UO within the operational concept shown in Figure 1-2, which depicts the potential simultaneity of UO. Brigades must be prepared to transition from one type of ODSS operation to another. How brigades prepare for and execute ODSS operations will be determined by the factors of METT-TC. (Within mission considerations, the ROE will have significant importance.)

a. Contiguous and Noncontiguous Areas of Operations. Brigades and battalions must be prepared to conduct ODSS operations in both contiguous and noncontiguous areas of operations (AO). They may be required to command and control subordinate units and elements over extended distances, which may include deploying subordinate battalions and companies individually in support of operations outside the brigade's immediate AO.

b. Symmetrical and Asymmetrical Threats. In addition to being required to face symmetrical threats, the brigade must be prepared to face threats of an asymmetrical nature.

c. Minimization of Collateral Damage and Noncombatant Casualties. A condition that commanders and leaders will be required to confront during urban operations will be minimizing collateral damage and noncombatant casualties. This will have to be balanced with mission accomplishment and the requirement to provide force protection. Commanders must be aware of the ROE and be prepared to request modifications when the tactical situation requires them. Changes in ROE must be rapidly disseminated throughout the brigade. Commanders and leaders must ensure that changes to the ROE are clearly understood by all soldiers within the brigade.

d. Quick Transition from Stability or Support Operations to Combat Operations and Back. Commanders and leaders must ensure that contingencies are planned to transition quickly from stability and support to combat operations and vice-versa. For example, it may be tactically wise for commanders to plan a defensive contingency with on-order offensive missions for certain stability and support operations that may deteriorate. An escalation to combat is a clear indicator that the stability or support operation failed. Units must always retain the ability to conduct offensive and defensive operations. Preserving the ability to transition allows units to maintain initiative while providing force protection. Subordinate commanders and leaders must be fully trained to recognize activities that would initiate this transition.

a. All UO do not involve combat. The US military has conducted several joint operations that have not required significant amounts of actual combat. Since the end of the war in Vietnam, the US has averaged about one major joint urban operation every other year. Some of these have been violent, such as in Panama and Mogadishu. Others have been very tense but involved little actual fighting, such as the stability operations conducted in Port au Prince, Haiti and Brcko, Bosnia. Many have been domestic support operations conducted in the US, such as the work done in Florida after hurricane Andrew or during the floods in North Dakota.

b. Operations in urban areas are conducted to capitalize on the strategic and tactical advantages of the city, and to deny those advantages to the enemy. Often, the side that controls a city has a psychological or political advantage, which can be enough to significantly affect the outcome of larger conflicts.

c. Even during normally less violent stability operations, such as peacekeeping, combat can occur in cities. In developing nations, control of only a few cities is often the key to control of national resources. The US city riots of the 1960's and the guerrilla and terrorist operations in Santo Domingo, Caracas, Belfast, Managua, Mogadishu, and Beirut indicate the many situations that can occur as a result of UO.

d. Urban areas also affect military operations because of the way they alter the terrain. In the last 40 years, cities have expanded, losing their well-defined boundaries as they extended into the countryside. New road systems have opened areas to make them passable. Highways, canals, and railroads have been built to connect population centers. Industries have grown along those connectors, creating strip areas. Rural areas, although retaining much of their farm-like character, are connected to the towns by a network of secondary roads.

e. These trends have occurred in most parts of the world, but they are the most dramatic in Western Europe. European cities tend to grow together to form one vast urban area. Entire regions assume an unbroken urban character, as is the case in the Ruhr and Rhein Main complex. Such growth patterns block and dominate the historic armor avenues of approach, or decrease the amount of open maneuver area available to an attacker. It is estimated that a typical brigade sector in a European environment includes 25 small towns, most of which would lie in the more open avenues of approach (Figure 1-3). Increased urbanization also has had an effect on Africa and Latin America. Populations have dramatically increased in existing cities and urban sprawl has led to the increased number of slums and shantytowns within those urban areas. In many cases, this urbanization has occurred close to the seacoast, since the interior of many third world nations is undeveloped or uninhabitable.

f. Extensive urbanization provides conditions that a threat force can exploit. Used with mobile forces on the adjacent terrain, conventional threat forces with antitank capabilities defending from urban areas can dominate avenues of approach, greatly improving the overall strength of the defense. Asymmetrical threats can use urban areas to offset US technological and firepower advantages.

g. Forces operating in such areas may have elements in open terrain, villages, towns, or small and large cities. Each of these areas calls for different tactics, task organization, fire support, and CSS.

a. Perform Focused Information Operations and Aggressive Intelligence, Surveillance, Reconnaissance. Information superiority efforts aimed at influencing non-Army sources of information are critical in UO. Because of the density of noncombatants and information sources, the media, the public, allies, coalition partners, neutral nations, and strategic leadership will likely scrutinize how units participate in UO. The proliferation of cell phones, Internet capability, and media outlets ensure close observation of unit activities. With information sources rapidly expanding, public information of Army operations will be available faster than the internal military information system (INFOSYS) can process it. Units can aggressively integrate information operations into every facet and at all levels of the operation to prevent negative impacts. Under media scrutiny, the actions of a single soldier may have significant strategic implications. The goal of information operations is to ensure that the information available to all interested parties, the public, the media, and other agencies, is accurate and placed in the proper context of the Army's mission. While many information operations will be planned at levels above the brigade, tactical units conducting UO may often be involved in the execution of information operations such as military deception, operations security (OPSEC), physical security, and psychological operations. Brigades and battalions must conduct aggressive intelligence, security, and reconnaissance operations that will allow them to properly apply the elements of assess, shape, dominate, and transition to specific UO.

b. Conduct Close Combat. Close combat is required in offensive and defensive UO. The capability must be present and visible in stability UO and may be required, by exception, in support UO. Close combat in any UO is resource intensive, requires properly trained and equipped forces, has the potential for high casualties, and can achieve decisive results when properly conducted. Units must always be prepared to conduct close combat as part of UO (Figure 1-4).

c. Avoid the Attrition Approach. Previous doctrine was inclined towards a systematic linear approach to urban combat. This approach placed an emphasis on standoff weapons and firepower. It can result in significant collateral damage, a lengthy operation, and be inconsistent with the political situation and strategic objectives. Enemy forces that defend urban areas often want units to adopt this approach because of the likely costs in resources. Commanders should only consider this tactical approach to urban combat only when the factors of METT-TC warrant its use.

d. Control the Essential. Many modern urban areas are too large to be completely occupied or even effectively controlled. Therefore, units must focus their efforts on controlling only the essentials to mission accomplishment. At a minimum, this requires control of key terrain (Figure 1-5). The definition of key terrain remains standard: terrain whose possession or control provides a marked advantage to one side or another. In the urban environment, functional, political, or social significance may be what makes terrain key. For example, a power station or a building may be key terrain. Units focus on control of the essential so they can concentrate combat power where it is needed and conserve it. This implies risk in those areas where units choose not to exercise control in order to be able to mass overwhelming power where it is needed.

e. Minimize Collateral Damage. Units should use precision standoff fires, information operations, and nonlethal tactical systems to the greatest extent possible consistent with mission accomplishment. Operational commanders must develop unique ROE for each UO and provide necessary firepower restrictions. Information operations and nonlethal systems may compensate for some of these required restrictions, especially in stability operations and support operations. Moreover, commanders must consider the short and long term effects of firepower on the population, the infrastructure, and subsequent missions.

f. Separate Combatants from Noncombatants. Promptly separating noncombatants from combatants may make the operation more efficient and diminish some of the enemy's asymmetrical advantages. Separation of noncombatants may also reduce some of the restrictions on the use of firepower and enhance force protection. This important task becomes more difficult when the adversary is an unconventional force and can mix with the civil population.

g. Restore Essential Services. Tactical units may have to plan for the restoration of essential services that may fail to function upon their arrival or cease to function during an operation. Essential services include power, food, water, sewage, medical, and security. During planning for and the conduct of UO, the use of nonlethal and less destructive munitions and capabilities can help ensure that potentially vital infrastructure remains intact. Initially, Army forces may be the only force able to restore or provide essential services. However, units must transfer responsibility for providing essential services to other agencies, nongovernment organizations (NGOs), or the local government as quickly as possible.

h. Preserve Critical Infrastructure. Brigade and battalion commanders and staffs may have to analyze the urban area to identify critical infrastructure. Attempts to preserve the critical elements for post-combat sustainment operations, stability operations, support operations, or the health and well-being of the indigenous population may be required. Urban areas remain in the AO after combat operations have ceased and post-combat UO may be unavoidable. This requirement differs from simply avoiding collateral damage in that units may have to initiate actions to prevent adversaries from removing or destroying infrastructure that will be required in the future. In some cases, preserving critical infrastructure may be the assigned objective of the UO.

i. Understand the Human Dimension. Brigade and battalion commanders and staffs may have to carefully consider and manage the allegiance and morale of the civilian population that may decisively affect operations. The assessment of the urban environment must identify clearly and accurately the attitudes of the urban population toward units. Guidance to subordinates covering numerous subjects including ROE, force protection, logistics operations, and fraternization, is part of this assessment. Brigade and battalion commanders and staffs may also be required to consider the demographic variance in the attitudes of an urban population. Western cultural norms may not be appropriate if applied to a nonwestern urban population. Commanders and staffs must make their assessments based on a thorough understanding and appreciation of the local social and cultural norms of the population. Sound policies, discipline, and consideration will positively affect the attitudes of the population toward Army forces. Additionally, well-conceived information operations can also enhance the position of units relative to the urban population. Even during combat operations against a conventional enemy force, the sensitivity and awareness of units toward the civilian population will affect the post combat situation. The human dimension of the urban environment often has the most significance and greatest potential for affecting the outcome of UO.

j. Transition Control. UO of all types are resource intensive and thus commanders must plan to conclude UO expediently, yet consistent with successful mission accomplishment. The end state of all UO transfers control of the urban area to another agency or returns it to civilian control. This requires the successful completion of the Army force mission and a thorough transition plan. The transition plan may include returning control of the urban area to another agency a portion at a time as conditions permit. For brigades and below, transition may also include changing missions from combat operations to stability operations or support operations and vice-versa.

a. Changing Conditions. Platoons and squads may find themselves executing missions in changing conditions during UO. The change from stability and support operations to combat operations and vice-versa will often change conditions from high-intensity to precision or the opposite. METT-TC factors and the ROE determine this change. ROE changes are normally made at echelons much higher than company and battalion, but they normally require that units modify the way they fight in urban areas. Squads and platoons will be required to select different TTP based on the conditions they face. The ROE will ultimately determine these conditions for the Infantry platoon and squad.

b. Small-Unit Battles. Units fighting in urban areas often become isolated or feel like they are isolated, making combat a series of small-unit battles. Soldiers and squad or team leaders must have the initiative, skill, and courage to accomplish their missions while isolated from their parent units. A skilled, well-trained defender has tactical advantages over the attacker in this type of combat. The defender may occupy strong covered and concealed static positions and conduct three-tier ambushes, whereas the attacker must be exposed in order to advance. Greatly reduced line-of-sight ranges, built-in obstacles, and compartmented terrain may require the commitment of more troops for a given frontage. While the defense of an urban area can be conducted effectively with relatively small numbers of troops, the troop density required for an attack in urban areas may be greater than for an attack in open terrain. Individual soldiers must be trained and psychologically ready for this type of operation.

c. Communications. Urban operations require centralized planning and decentralized execution. Therefore, effective vertical and horizontal communications are critical. Leaders must trust their subordinates' initiative and skill, which can only occur through training. The state of a unit's training and cohesion are vital, decisive factors in the execution of operations in urban areas.

d. Noncombatants. Urban areas, by their very nature, are population centers. Noncombatants will be present and will affect both friendly and threat courses of action across the spectrum of UO. Besides the local inhabitants, refugees, governmental and NGOs, and the international media are likely to be present. For example, during the fighting in Grozny, 150,000 refugees were added to a prefight population of 450,000. There were 50,000 civilian casualties during the fight. Units must be prepared to deal with all categories of noncombatants

e. High Expenditure of Ammunition. Units conducting UO use large quantities of ammunition because of short ranges, limited visibility, briefly exposed targets, constant engagements, and requirements for suppression. AT4s, rifle and machine gun ammunition, 40-mm grenades, hand grenades, and explosives are high-usage items in this type of fighting. When possible, those items should be either stockpiled or brought forward on-call, so that they are easily available.

f. Increased Casualties. More casualties occur because of shattered glass, falling debris, rubble, ricochets, urban fires, and falls from heights. Difficulty in maintaining situational awareness also contributes to this problem because of increased risks of fratricide. Stress-related casualties and nonbattle injuries resulting from illnesses or environmental hazards, such as contaminated water, toxic industrial materials (TIM), and so forth, also increase the number of casualties.

g. Limited Mounted Maneuver Space. Buildings, street width, rubble, debris, and noncombatants all contribute to limited mounted maneuver space inside urban areas. Armored vehicles will rarely be able to operate inside an urban area without Infantry support.

h. Three-Dimensional Terrain. Friendly and threat forces will conduct operations in a three-dimensional battle space. Engagements can occur on the surface, above the surface, or below the surface of the urban area. Additionally, engagements can occur inside and outside of buildings. Multistory buildings will present the additional possibility of different floors within the same structure being controlled by either friendly or threat forces.

i. Collateral Damage. Depending on the nature of the operation and METT-TC factors, significant collateral damage may occur, especially under conditions of high-intensity UO. Commanders and leaders must ensure that ROE are disseminated and enforced.

j. Reliance on Human Intelligence. Until technological advancements provide more effective ways of gathering information, there is an increased need for human intelligence (HUMINT). Reconnaissance efforts of battalion and brigade assets can assist as well as the shaping operations of division or joint task force assets. Companies and below normally have to continue to rely on information provided to them from human sources.

k. Need for Combined Arms. While UO historically have consisted of a high density of Infantry-specific tasks, UO conducted purely by Infantry units have proven to be unsound. Properly tasked-organized combined arms teams consisting primarily of Infantry, engineers, and armor supported by other combat, CS, and CSS assets have proven to be more successful both in the offense and defense. The same concept is true for stability and support operations, when the main effort may not necessarily consist of combat units.

l. Need to Isolate Critical Points. During offensive operations, companies, platoons, and squads will be assaulting buildings and clearing rooms. More often, assets will not exist to isolate large portions of the urban area. Therefore, skillful use of direct and indirect fires, obscurants, and maneuver must occur to isolate key buildings or portions of buildings in order to secure footholds and clear.

m. Snipers. Historically, snipers have had increased utility in urban areas. They can provide long- and short-range precision fires and can be used effectively to assist company- and platoon-level isolation efforts. Snipers also have provided precision fires during stability operations. Along with engaging assigned targets, snipers are a valuable asset to the commander for providing observation along movement routes and suppressive fires during an assault.

n. Support by Fire Positions. Buildings, street width, rubble, debris, and noncombatants all dictate the positioning and fields of fire for crew-served and key weapons in urban areas.

a. Commanders and leaders can enhance situational understanding by maintaining a clear understanding of their urban battle space (Figure 1-6). Urban battle space includes:

b. Commanders and leaders must be able to identify building types, construction materials, and building design and must understand the effectiveness and limitations of weapons against these factors. (See Chapters 3 and 8.) They must also understand that urban combat will require them to visualize a three-dimensional battle space. Commanders and leaders must be aware of how their urban battle space is changing as friendly and enemy forces and civilians move, and as weather and environmental conditions change. They can react to changes within the their battle space with the timely movement of assault, support, and breaching elements in the offense; repositioning of platoons and squads in the defense; and synchronization of CS and CSS assets. Other factors that impact battle space are:

• CASEVAC and resupply procedures.

• Handling EPWs and noncombatants.

• Rules of engagement. (See Appendix A.)

• Battlefield obscuration.

• Communications.

• Movement of vehicles. (How will the battle space affect movement and target engagement?)

a. Hard, smooth, flat surfaces are characteristic of urban targets. Rounds rarely impact perpendicular to these flat surfaces, but rather, at an oblique angle. This reduces the effect of a round and increases the threat of ricochets. The tendency of rounds to strike glancing blows against hard surfaces means that up to 25 percent of impact-fused explosive rounds may not detonate when fired into urban areas. Deflected rounds can easily ricochet or "rabbit" causing injury and death from strange angles. (A "rabbit" round is a round or fragment that strikes a surface at such a steep angle that it glances off and continues to travel parallel to that surface.)

b. Engagement ranges are close. Studies and historical analyses have shown that only 5 percent of all targets are more than 100 meters away. About 90 percent of all targets are located 50 meters or less from the identifying soldier. Few personnel targets will be visible beyond 50 meters and they usually occur at 35 meters or less. Engagement times are short. Enemy personnel present only fleeting targets.

c. Depression and elevation limits for some weapons create dead space. Tall buildings form deep canyons that are often safe from indirect fires. Some weapons can fire rounds to ricochet behind cover and inflict casualties. Target engagement from oblique angles, both horizontal and vertical, demands superior marksmanship skills.

d. Smoke from burning buildings, dust from explosions, shadows from tall buildings, and the lack of light penetrating inner rooms all combine to reduce visibility and increase a sense of isolation. Added to this is the masking of fires caused by rubble and manmade structures. Targets, even those at close range, tend to be indistinct.

e. Urban fighting can become confused mêlées with several small units attacking on converging axes. The risks from friendly fires, ricochets, and fratricide must be considered during the planning phase of operations, and control measures must be adjusted to lower these risks. Soldiers and leaders must maintain a sense of situational awareness.

f. The soldier and target may be inside or outside buildings, or they may both be inside the same or separate buildings. The enclosed nature of combat in urban areas means that all the weapon's effects including the muzzle blast and backblast, must be considered as well as the round's impact on the target.

g. Usually the man-made structure must be attacked before enemy personnel inside are attacked. Therefore, the decision to employ specific weapons and demolitions will often be based on their effects against masonry and concrete rather than against enemy personnel.

h. Modern engineering and design improvements mean that most large buildings constructed since World War II are resilient to the blast effects of bomb and artillery attack. Even though modern buildings may burn easily, they often retain their structural integrity and remain standing. Once high-rise buildings burn out, they may still have military utility and are almost impossible to damage further. A large structure can take 24 to 48 hours to burn out and become cool enough for soldiers to enter.

a. Ground Level. At ground level the ranges of observation and fields of fire are reduced by structures as well as by the dust and smoke of battle. The density of urban terrain limits the ability of soldiers to employ their weapons out to the weapon's maximum effective range. Historically, engagements have been very close, often 100 meters or less. In urban areas, the ranges of observation and fields of fire are reduced by structures as well as by the dust and smoke of battle. As a result, urban engagements consist mostly of close, violent firefights. This situation requires an increase of precision/accurate small arms fire as well as strict fire control and proper identification of friend or foe. The Infantry uses mostly light and medium antitank weapons, automatic rifles, machine guns, and hand grenades. Opportunities for using antitank guided missiles may be restricted because of the short ranges involved and the many obstructions that interfere with missile flight. Danger close is normal for use of indirect fires in most firefights.

b. Above Ground Level. Tall buildings and aircraft provide opportunities to observe and engage targets from much longer ranges than from ground-level positions. However, target exposures may still be very short because of the multiplicity of cover available to the enemy on the ground. Observers positioned on very high buildings sometimes feel that they are able to observe everything in their area of operations and experience a false sense of security. In fact, even observers in good above-ground positions are often limited in their ability to see much of what is occurring. Aerial observers are very useful during urban operations. Helicopters and fixed-wing aircraft, such as the AC 130 Spector gunship or the P-3 Orion, carry sophisticated sensors that can greatly improve the ability to observe in the urban area. They can vary their viewing angles and altitudes to obtain a better view around and over buildings, but they cannot remain stationary for any length of time and must depart the area periodically to refuel. A commander's best course of action is to integrate both ground level and above ground level observers to obtain the most complete picture of the situation.

a. Definitions. Definitions that apply are discussed below.

b. Noncombatants and Rules of Engagement. All leaders and soldiers must understand the potential urban battlefield and the fact that they will most likely encounter noncombatants. If soldiers must deal with noncombatants, they should refer to their ROE. ROE should be very specific on treatment of each type of noncombatant [paragraph a(2)].

c. Communication with Civilians. Soldiers should learn basic commands and phrases in the language most common to their area of operations. When giving these commands or phrases, they should speak loudly and clearly at a normal rate and use gestures whenever possible. All soldiers should be given a basic language translation card. (See example in Table 1-2.)

d. Cultural Issues. Soldiers must be educated on the types of cultural issues that may offend the local inhabitants. For example, a gesture that may be innocent to Americans may deeply insult the inhabitants.

e. Considerations for Handling Noncombatants. Commanders and leaders should consider using CA, PSYOP, MPs, chaplains, and civil leaders and authorities, when available, if their mission involves handling noncombatants. Other considerations include the following:

f. Determining the Status of Personnel. Companies and below do not determine the status of individuals in the combat area. Any persons that are initially detained should be treated as PWs, and higher headquarters should be notified with a request for assistance in evacuating these individuals.

a. Anxiety. The fear and anticipation of the unknown can have devastating effects on the mental and physical wellbeing of a person. Soldiers may experience the fear of death or being wounded or, because of the three-dimensional battlefield, the possibility of being engaged from all directions simultaneously. A lack of communication with others may cause a feeling of isolation and vulnerability.

b. Intense Noise, Limited Visibility, and Low Light Levels. Smoke, darkness, fog, rain, snow, ice, and glare make it hard to see. The extended wear of night vision goggles, protective masks, or laser protective lenses causes stress. Intense noise not only causes stress by itself, but it further isolates the soldier from human contact and interferes with situational awareness.

c. Disrupted Wake/Sleep Cycle. A soldier's performance suffers during normal sleeping hours due to the disruption of the normal schedule.

d. Decision Making and Responsibility for Others. Mental stress results from making vital decisions with little time and insufficient information. It is increased during times of great confusion and exposure to danger. Leaders are especially affected by the heavy load of responsibility they carry.

e. Physical Fatigue and Illness. Working the muscles faster than they can be supplied with oxygen and fuel can cause soldiers to function poorly without rest. Minor illnesses that do not completely disable the soldier add to his stress and hinder his ability to function at his full potential.

f. Physical Discomfort. Extreme cold, heat, wet, or thirst add greatly to the level of individual stress. Minor injuries or wounds can cause constant pain that, while not incapacitating to the soldier, add to his stress.

g. Psychological Stress. Commanders and leaders must remain alert for the signs of psychological stress. During the fighting in Grozny, 72 percent of the Russian soldiers demonstrated some kind of psychological disorder symptoms such as insomnia, lack of motivation, high anxiety, neuro-emotional stress, fatigue, and hypochondria. Brigade and battalion surgeons must be prepared for soldiers exhibiting signs of psychological stress.

a. Doctrine. Doctrine provides the basic framework for accomplishing the mission. Commanders and leaders must have a thorough understanding of US doctrine and, if operating with other services or nations, joint, combined, and host nation doctrine.

b. Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures. TTP provide a "how-to" that everyone understands. TTP are disseminated in doctrinal manuals and standing operating procedures (SOPs).

c. Planning. A simple, flexible maneuver plan that is disseminated to the lowest level will aid in the prevention of fratricide. Plans should make the maximum use of SOPs and battle drills at the user level. They should incorporate adequate control measures and fire support planning and coordination to ensure the safety of friendly troops and allow changes after execution begins.

d. Execution. The execution of the plan must be monitored, especially with regard to the location of friendly troops and their relationship to friendly fires and the effects of those fires on the structural integrity of the building. For example, a fragmentation grenade used in a weakly constructed building may cause grenade fragments to pass through walls and injure friendly troops. Additionally, subordinate units must understand the importance of accurately reporting their position.

e. Rehearsals and Training. The most important factor in preventing fratricide is effective individual and collective training in the many tasks that support UO. Often the only combined arms training that will occur are the rehearsals with attached or OPCON assets such as engineers or armored vehicles.

a. Urban Battle Space. See paragraph 1-7 for detailed information.

b. Questions. To the company level leaders situational awareness means being able to answer certain questions:

• Where am I (in respect to the urban area or my assigned sector)?

• Where are my soldiers? What is their current status/activity?

• Where are friendlies (adjacent and supporting units)? What is their current status/activity?

• Where is the enemy? What are the enemy's capabilities?

a Accessibility and Presence. In comparison to other environments (jungles, deserts, mountains, and cold weather areas), urban operations are more accessible to the media and, therefore, more visible to the world. This is due largely to the presence of airports, sea and river ports, and major road networks; ready access to power sources and telecommunications facilities; as well as access to existing local media structures.

b. Complex Relationships. A complex relationship exists among information, the public, and policy formulation. Although the degree and manner in which public opinion shapes government policy is uncertain, it has been shown that negative visual images of military operations presented by the news media can change political objectives and, subsequently, military objectives. As important, media reporting can influence civilian activity in an urban AO to either the advantage or disadvantage of commanders conducting UO.

c. Management of Information. Commanders do not control the media; however, they must manage the flow of information that the news media receives and subsequently presents to the public. Consequently, operational commanders must plan and execute public affairs (PA) operations that will induce cooperation between the media and subordinate units. Brigade and battalion staffs will also become involved with public affairs operations either by directly planning them or executing PA operations that were planned at the division or joint task force (JTF) level. Successful relations between units and the news media evolve from regular interaction based on credibility and trust. To this end, more information is usually better than less, except when the release of such information may jeopardize security and threaten the safety and privacy of soldiers. However, commanders cannot simply withhold information to protect the command from embarrassment. Generally, brigade and battalion commanders must consider media interest as part of the normal planning process and work to ensure that information presented to the news media is accurate, timely, and consistent with operational security (OPSEC). Since the media will likely arrive in the urban area before the conduct of operations, early deployment of PA assets by the division or JTF headquarters may be critical.

d. Media Engagement. Failure to provide sufficient information can hamper a commander's ability to conduct the mission. Poor relationships with the media can result in inaccurate and even biased reporting, which may cause a public reaction that influences the ability to achieve operational objectives. During the Russian battle against Chechen separatists in Grozny in 1994, for example, the Russian military refused to communicate with reporters. Consequently, the media reported primarily from the perspective of the Chechen rebels. This encouraged both local and international support for the rebels. It also allowed the Chechens, who lacked sophisticated command and control equipment, to use the media to broadcast operational guidance to their forces. On the other hand, successful engagement of the media can serve as a force multiplier. The Army's open and responsive interaction with the media during peacekeeping operations in Bosnian urban areas helped to explain the challenges and successes of units in the Balkans to the public. This helped maintain domestic, international, and local political support for NATO operations, and in conjunction with a successful command information program, helped maintain the morale of soldiers serving in the Balkans.

a. Brigade and Battalion Staff Planning Considerations. Offensive, defensive, stability and support operations all require analysis of UXO.

b. Company Team and Platoon Planning Considerations. At the company level and below, the primary concern should be the identification and marking of UXO. Company teams and below should not attempt to move or destroy UXO. They may provide security to EOD teams and engineers during removal and or disposal operations. To assist in planning, the nine-line UXO spot report listed below should be used. (See FM 4-30.16.)

Line 1. Date-Time Group: DTG item was discovered.

Line 2. Reporting Activity: (Unit identification) and location (grid of UXO).

Line 3. Contact Method: Radio frequency, call sign, point of contact (POC ), and telephone number.

Line 4. Type of Ordnance: Dropped, projected, placed, or thrown. If available, supply the subgroup. Give the number of items, if more than one.

Line 5. NBC Contamination: Be as specific as possible.

Line 6. Resources Threatened: Report any equipment, facilities, or other assets that are threatened.

Line 7. Impact on Mission: Provide a short description of the current tactical situation and how the presence of the UXO affects the status.

Line 8. Protective Measures: Describe any measures taken to protect personnel and equipment.

Line 9. Recommended Priority: Recommend a priority for response by EOD technicians or engineers.

Leaders at the company level and below must ensure that clear instructions are provided to the soldiers with reference to not handling any UXO. The UXO itself may not look particularly menacing and curiosity may lead soldiers to want to pick-up or move UXO. Soldiers must be briefed on the potential lethality of such actions. Proper reaction to UXO takes on increased significance during stability operations and support operations when soldiers are conducting missions in close proximity to noncombatants. (See Figures 1-8 through 1-11.)

c. Toxic Industrial Materials (TIM). See Appendix F. Often UO are performed in areas that contain TIM. For example, damage or destruction of chemical or petroleum production facilities can produce extremely hazardous conditions and may actually prevent or seriously hamper mission accomplishment. Many of the UXO planning factors discussed in paragraphs a and b also apply to TIM. Battalion and or brigade chemical officers should coordinate with engineer officers and EOD battalion and or brigade elements to plan appropriate preventive or reactive measures in the event of a release of TIM. (See FM 4-30.16 for further information on UXO.)