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CHAPTER 6

Combat Support

The tank platoon must take full advantage of available CS assets to accomplish its mission and to reduce its vulnerability on the battlefield. CS may be provided by mortars, FA, combat engineers, ADA, and aviation assets. These assets are not organic to the tank platoon, but they may be available to the platoon through its parent battalion, company, or cavalry troop. The platoon leader must understand the capabilities and limitations of each CS asset.

CONTENTS
Section 1	Indirect Fire Support
Section 2	Army Aviation
Section 3	Combat Engineers
Section 4	Air Defense
Section 5	Air Support

SECTION 1 - INDIRECT FIRE SUPPORT

Mortars and FA are the primary means of indirect fire support available to tank platoons. In addition to understanding the capabilities and limitations of these assets, platoon leaders and their TCs must know what fire request channels to use to request fires. They must also understand how to work with the FIST at company team/troop level to plan and coordinate indirect fires. FM 6-30 explains how to call for and adjust fires.

MORTAR SUPPORT

Mortars afford indirect fire support that is immediately responsive to the tank platoon's needs. A 120-mm mortar platoon of six tubes is organic to armor and mechanized infantry battalions. A 120-mm mortar section is organic to the armored cavalry troop (two tubes) and divisional cavalry troop (two tubes).

Capabilities

With a maximum effective range of 7,200 meters, 120-mm mortars can provide a heavy volume of accurate, sustained fires. They are ideal weapons for attacking a variety of targets, including the following:

• Infantry in the open.
• Targets on reverse slopes.
• Targets in narrow ravines or trenches.
• Targets in forests, towns, and other areas that are difficult to strike with low-angle fires.

In addition to these highly flexible targeting options, mortars have the following capabilities and advantages:

• They offer fast response time.
• They are effective against low-density targets.
• Mortar rounds afford highly destructive target effects.

Limitations

Mortars are limited in the following ways:

• Their maximum range is limited in comparison to the indirect fire support capability of FA elements.
• They cannot be used against targets inside their minimum effective range (770 meters from the mortar tube position).
• Only limited types of ammunition are available.
• Mortar elements carry limited amounts of ammunition.
• Their fire direction center (FDC) and tubes are not linked to the tactical fire direction system (TACFIRE).

Employment considerations

Mortars can be extremely effective when used for the purposes outlined in the following discussion.

Destruction. High explosive (HE) rounds, mounted with variable-timed (VT) fuzes, can be used to destroy or disperse dismounted infantry and vehicles that are in the open. HE mortar rounds have the capability to destroy or disable some armored vehicles.

Suppression. HE rounds can be used to force the enemy to button up or move to less advantageous positions.

Smoke. Mortar smoke builds up more rapidly than artillery smoke. White phosphorus (WP) rounds are used for obscuration and screening. See Appendix E of this manual for detailed information on the use of smoke.

Illumination. Illumination rounds are used to light an area or enemy position during periods of limited visibility. Illumination can increase the effectiveness of the tank platoon's image intensification devices (passive sights). This helps the platoon in gathering information, adjusting artillery fire, and engaging enemy targets. Ground-burst illumination can also be used to mark enemy positions and to provide a thermal TRP for control of fires.

Units must be careful, however, not to illuminate friendly positions. Also, because US night vision devices are superior to those of most potential adversaries, illuminating the battlefield may be unnecessary or even counterproductive.

FIELD ARTILLERY SUPPORT

Tank platoon leaders must fully understand how to use artillery support to their best advantage. It is often their primary means of impeding and disrupting enemy formations and suppressing enemy positions. FA can provide immediate, responsive, accurate fires with a wide variety of munitions.

FA support is normally provided by an artillery battalion in direct support (DS) of a committed maneuver brigade. Each ground squadron in the armored cavalry regiment (ACR) has its own organic howitzer battery to provide dedicated indirect fire support. The platoon generally receives FA support through its attached company or troop FIST.

Capabilities

In support of the tank platoon, FA elements can accomplish the following tasks:

• They can be employed to provide immediate suppression on unplanned targets.
• Through careful positioning and timely displacement, they can provide continuous fire support on planned targets in all weather conditions and types of terrain.
• They allow commanders and platoon leaders to shift and mass fires rapidly.
• They offer a variety of conventional shell and fuze combinations.
• They can provide obscuration smoke to conceal movement.
• They can fire battlefield illumination rounds as necessary.

Limitations

FA support has the following limitations:

• It has only limited capability against moving targets.
• It has limited capability to destroy point targets without considerable ammunition expenditure.
• Because of its firing signature, it is highly vulnerable to detection by enemy target acquisition systems.

Employment considerations for FA munitions

FA elements employ several types of munitions. These can be tailored for the engagement of different types of targets, as well as for other missions such as smoke and illumination. The following discussion outlines uses of FA munitions.

High explosive. HE munitions are used against personnel, field fortifications, and vehicles.

White phosphorus. WP is used for obscuration, screening, and burning.

Illumination. Employment of FA illumination rounds is similar to that for mortar rounds. Refer to the discussion of mortar employment earlier in this section.

Cannon-launched guided projectiles (Copperhead). These rounds are employed against high-priority point targets.

Improved conventional munitions and dual-purpose improved conventional munitions. Improve conventional munitions (ICM) are designed for antipersonnel (AP) use. DPICM are employed against personnel and light armored vehicles in the open. The danger to friendly troops in areas where AP munitions are fired must be considered. The dud rate of ICM makes maneuver in the area of an ICM field hazardous.

Scatterable mines. These include area denial munitions (ADAM) for use against personnel and remote antiarmor mines (RAAM) for use against armored vehicles. A mission involving scatterable mines requires the support of FA assets up to battery-size; it must be planned and requested with significantly more lead time than is needed for other FA-delivered munitions.

FIRE TEAM SUPPORT

The FIST is attached to companies or troops for combat operations. It may be pushed forward with a security force in support of operations when on-target designation is required for special munitions engagements. The FIST, however, is a valuable resource because of its command and control link with the artillery; it should not be exposed to direct fire except when absolutely necessary.

Support considerations

FISTs are organized, equipped, and trained to provide the following personnel and support to the company or troop:

• A fire support advisor and coordinator.
• A communications link to all available indirect fire support assets.
• On-the-spot support for infantry companies (10-man team) or for armor companies and cavalry troops (4-man team).

Communications

The armor or mechanized infantry FIST normally monitors the following radio nets:

• Attached unit command net (battalion, company team, or troop).
• Battalion mortar fire direction net.
• DS battalion fire direction net (digital).
• Battalion fire support net (voice).

The armored cavalry troop FIST normally monitors these radio nets:

• Troop command net.
• Troop fire support net.
• Supporting artillery fire direction net (digital and voice).
• Squadron fire support net.

The FIST serves as the net control station (NCS) on the troop fire support net, while the fire support element (FSE) serves as the NCS on the maneuver battalion fire support net. The FIST relays calls for fire to supporting artillery on a digital net (TACFIRE) or sends the fire mission to the mortar platoon or section. The command net allows the FIST to monitor operations and links the FIST to the commander and platoon leaders for planning and coordination.

FIST vehicle

The FIST usually rides in and operates from the M981, known as the FIST-V. Refer to Figure 6-1 for an illustration.

Figure 6-1. Fire support team vehicle.

FIRE REQUEST CHANNELS

In a tank company, all requests for indirect fire support are normally sent through the FIST on the company or troop command net. The commander approves the request using a prearranged method (oral approval or silence). The FIST selects the best available fire support asset to engage the target. Adjustments of the fire mission normally are also sent to the FIST, which then relays the message to the artillery unit on a digital fire direction net or to the battalion mortars on the fire support net. In cavalry troops, the FIST may pass the fire mission to the troop mortars; all adjustments are sent directly to the mortars.

Besides specific requests sent to the FIST, the platoon can obtain fire support in several other ways:

• Calls for fire can result from SPOTREPs sent on the company or troop command net; the company FIST eavesdrops on the net and requests fires on targets of opportunity and on targets approved by the commander.
• Requests for fire can be "tagged" onto preformatted SPOTREPs and contact reports sent via IVIS or FBCB2. The TC presses the button for "request fire," "immediate suppression," or "immediate smoke" when sending an IVIS or FBCB2 report (see Figures 6-2 and 6-3).
• Requests for fire support can be entered directly into the TACFIRE system using IVIS or FBCB2. Using the digital system, the platoon leader can exit a communications net and link into the TACFIRE system. Once the request is complete, the platoon leader exits the TACFIRE system and reenters the unit's net. Unit SOP will dictate the use of this TACFIRE capability; see FKSM 17-15-3 for details.

Figure 6-2. IVIS SPOTREP (immediate suppression request).

Figure 6-3. FBCB2 SPOTREP (immediate suppression request).

CALL FOR FIRE

The call for fire is the primary means by which a unit requests indirect fire support. The following discussion of the call for fire process covers three phases of the indirect fire mission:

• The initial call for fire, which encompasses six elements and is sent in a standard three-transmission format.
• Subsequent adjustments to the indirect fire support.
• The refinement and surveillance actions necessary to complete the mission.

Initial call for fire

As noted, the standard call for fire consists of three basic transmissions, which in turn comprise six elements:

• Observer identification and warning order (first transmission).
• Target location (second transmission).
• Target description, method of engagement, and method of fire and control (third transmission).

Observer identification and warning order (first transmission). Observer identification tells the FDC who is calling. It also clears the net for the duration of the call. The warning order tells the FDC the type of mission and the method of locating the target. The types of indirect fire missions are the following:

• Adjust fire. This is used when the observer is uncertain of the exact target location. The observer says, "ADJUST FIRE."
• Fire for effect. The observer should always attempt first-round fire for effect if he is sure his target location is correct. He should also be sure the rounds of the first volley will have the desired effect on the target so little or no adjustment will be required. The observer announces, "FIRE FOR EFFECT." (NOTE: On IVIS- or FBCB2-equipped vehicles, properly updated POSNAV data and an accurate lase to the target provide extremely accurate target designation capability. This enables observers to call "FIRE FOR EFFECT" on the first transmission.)
• Suppression. The word "SUPPRESS" is used to quickly bring fire on a preplanned target. This is a simplified call for fire and is sent in one transmission. Example: "G24 - THIS IS G59 - SUPPRESS AF2401 - OVER." Target description is not announced.
• Immediate suppression. This is used to bring fire quickly on a planned target or a target of opportunity that is firing at a friendly unit or aircraft. As an example, the observer says, "G24 - THIS IS G57 - IMMEDIATE SUPPRESSION AF2402 - OVER." Target description is not announced.
• Immediate smoke. This is used to place smoke quickly on a planned target or a target of opportunity that is firing at a friendly unit. Sample transmission: "G24 - THIS IS G54 - IMMEDIATE SMOKE AF2405 - OVER."

Target location (second transmission). Following the type of mission, the method of target location is announced; this prepares the FDC to receive the data sent by the observer and apply it to locate the target. The three methods for locating targets are grid, polar plot, and shift from a known point. The polar and shift methods are announced to the FDC. If the observer does not specify either polar or shift, the FDC knows the grid method is being used; the word "grid" is not announced. Example: "H24 - THIS IS H67 - FIRE FOR EFFECT - POLAR - OVER."

Grid method. In the grid method, the target location normally consists of a two-letter grid zone identifier with six digits (example: "AB180739"). The direction from the observer to the target (in mils, if possible) must be given to the FDC after the call for fire, but before the first adjusting rounds are shot.

Polar plot method. This method requires that the observer and the FDC know the observer's exact location. The observer determines the direction (to the nearest 10 mils) of the observer-target (OT) line and the distance (to the nearest 100 meters) from his position to the target (see
Figure 6-4).

Figure 6-4. Polar plot method of target location

Shift from a known point method. This method can be used if the observer and the FDC have a common known point (see Figure 6-5). Normally, this point is an artillery target. To locate the target, the observer must first determine the direction to the known point to the nearest 10 mils. If the observer has no compass, he can determine the direction by using a map and protractor or by using his binocular reticle pattern and a known direction to the known point. He then determines direction to the target using the RALS rule (right add, left subtract).

Figure 6-5. Shift from a known point method
using direction (in mils).

The observer then determines the lateral and range shifts (see Figure 6-6). Lateral shifts are left or right from the known point to the OT line and are given to the nearest 10 meters. Range shifts are given as "ADD" (when the target is beyond the known point) or "DROP" (when the target is closer than the known point). Range shifts are given to the nearest 100 meters. FM 6-30 explains in detail how to determine lateral and range shifts.

Figure 6-6. Lateral and range shifts from a known point.

Target description, method of engagement, and method of fire and control (third transmission). The observer includes these elements in his call for fire using the guidelines discussed in the following paragraphs.

Target description. The observer describes the target to the FDC; see Figure 6-7 for examples. The FDC then determines the type and amount of ammunition needed. The target description should be brief but accurate. This is the last required element in the call for fire.

Figure 6-7. Target description.

Method of engagement. The observer tells how he wants to attack the target (including type of ammunition, fuze, and distance from friendly troops). The FDC may change the ammunition type and fuze based on availability or other constraints. If the target is within 600 meters of friendly troops, the observer announces "DANGER CLOSE" to supporting mortars and artillery.

Method of fire and control. The observer states who will give the command for fire to begin. If the observer wants to control the time of firing, he will say, "AT MY COMMAND." The FDC will tell the observer when the unit is ready to fire. At the proper time, the observer will say, "FIRE." If the observer does not say, "AT MY COMMAND," the FDC will fire as soon as the platoon or battery is ready.

Adjusting indirect fire

Once the call for fire has been made, the observer's next concern is to get the fire on the target. If he can locate the target accurately, he will request fire for effect in his initial call for fire. When the observer cannot accurately locate the target for any reason (such as deceptive terrain, lack of identifiable terrain features, or poor visibility), he must execute an adjustment to get the fire on target. Normally, one artillery piece or mortar is used in adjustment.

The observer must first pick an adjusting point. For a destruction mission (precision fire), the target is the adjusting point. For an area target (area fire), the observer must pick a well-defined adjusting point at the center of the area or close to it. The observer must spot the first adjusting round and each successive round and send range and deviation corrections, as required, back to the FDC until fire hits the target. The observer spots by relating the burst or group of bursts to the adjusting point. For a further discussion of adjusting mortar and artillery fire, see FM 6-30.

Deviation spotting. As applied to deviation (left or right), spotting involves measuring the horizontal angle (in mils) between the burst and the adjusting point (see Figure 6-8). A burst to the right (or left) of the target is spotted as "(number) MILS RIGHT (LEFT)."

An angle-measuring device or technique, such as the mil scale on military binoculars or the hand-and-fingers method, is required to determine deviation. The reticle in binoculars is shown in Figure 6-9. The horizontal scale, divided into 10-mil increments, is used for measuring horizontal angles. The vertical scales, in 5-mil increments in the center and on the left side of the reticle, are used for measuring vertical angles. The scale on the right, if present, is no longer used. The hand-and-fingers technique may be used as shown in Figure 6-10.

Figure 6-8. Deviation spotting.

Figure 6-9. Mil scale in binocular reticle.

Figure 6-10. Use of hand and fingers method
to determine deviation.

A burst on the OT line is spotted as "ON LINE." Deviation to the left or right should be measured to the nearest 5 mils for area targets, with measurements taken from the center of the burst. Deviation for a destruction mission (precision fire) is estimated to the nearest mil. Figure 6-11 shows the adjusting point at the center of the binoculars' horizontal scale.

Figure 6-11. Deviation spotting with binoculars.

Deviation correction. Once he determines the observed deviation (in mils), the observer must convert it into a deviation correction (in meters). Deviation correction is the distance in meters the burst must be moved to be on line between observer and target. It is sent, with the range correction, to the FDC for the next adjusting round or when calling for fire for effect.

The first step in determining deviation correction is to calculate the OT factor, the distance from the observer to the target in kilometers. The observer calculates the distance to the target in meters and divides by 1,000; see Figure 6-12 for examples of this process. The precise correction is determined by multiplying the observed deviation by the OT factor; it is expressed to the nearest 10 meters (see Figure 6-13).

Figure 6-12. Determining the OT factor.

Figure 6-13. Converting mil deviation to deviation correction.

The observer's goal in making the correction is to move the adjusting rounds close enough to the OT line so that range spotting can be made accurately. Minor deviation corrections (10 to 20 meters) are necessary in adjustment of precision fire. In adjustment of area fire, however, small deviation corrections (20 meters or less) should be ignored except when such a small change is necessary to determine a definite range spotting.

Range spotting. Range spotting is the second type of adjustment required to get fire on the target (see Figure 6-14). Any range spotting other than "DOUBTFUL" or "LOST" is definite. Usually, an adjusting round's burst that is on or near the OT line will give a definite range spotting.

Figure 6-14. Range spotting.

The observer can sometimes make a definite range spotting even when the burst is not on or near the OT line. He uses his knowledge of the terrain or wind and observes debris scattered by the explosion. If the observer is not sure ("DOUBTFUL"), the correction he sends to the FDC should be for deviation ("LEFT" or "RIGHT") only. He does this to bring the burst on line so he can get a definite range spotting ("OVER," "SHORT," or "TARGET").

Range correction. The observer gives range corrections so that, with each successive correction, the adjusting round intentionally lands over or short of the adjusting point, closing on the target.

Bracketing. In the bracketing technique, fire for effect is called for when a range correction would bring the next round within 50 meters of the adjusting point. See Figure 6-15. (NOTE: This technique is also called successive bracketing, as opposed to the faster and less involved technique of hasty bracketing, which is covered later in this discussion.)

Figure 6-15. Bracketing.

Bracketing is an effective technique in that it is sure to bring fire on the target. Time is important, especially when targets are moving or may move to seek cover when they find fire coming their way. Accurate initial location data allow the adjustment to be made more quickly and make the requested fire more effective. To shorten adjustment time, the observer should try to bracket the target quickly (in the first two or three adjusting rounds), then adjust on the target using as few subsequent rounds as possible.

Hasty bracketing. Experience has shown that effectiveness on the target decreases as the number of rounds used in adjustment increases. An alternative to successive bracketing is hasty bracketing. While successive bracketing mathematically ensures that the fire-for-effect rounds will strike within 50 meters of the adjusting point, it is a relatively slow and unresponsive technique. Therefore, if the nature of the target dictates that effective fires are needed faster than successive bracketing can provide them, hasty bracketing should be used.

The success of hasty bracketing depends on a thorough terrain analysis that gives the observer an accurate initial target location. The observer obtains a bracket on his first correction in a manner similar to that used for successive bracketing. Once the observer has this initial bracket, he uses it as a yardstick to determine his subsequent correction. He then sends the correction to the FDC so it can adjust the rounds to the target and employ fire for effect (see Figure 6-16).

Hasty bracketing improves as the observer gains experience and judgment. Every observer must strive to improve his abilities and increase his responsiveness on the battlefield.

Figure 6-16. Hasty bracketing.

Creeping. The creeping method of adjustment is used in "DANGER CLOSE" situations. The initial round is fired beyond the target. Adjusting rounds are moved closer to the target, 50 meters or less at a time, until the target is engaged (see Figure 6-17). This method is slow and tends to use more ammunition than other adjustments; therefore, it should be used only when soldier safety is a major concern.

Figure 6-17. Creeping method of adjustment.

Refinement and surveillance

The observer notes the results of the fire for effect and then takes whatever action is necessary to complete the mission. Figure 6-18 illustrates various alternatives available to the observer after fire-for-effect rounds have been fired.

Figure 6-18. Observer's actions after fire for effect.

TANK PLATOON FIRE SUPPORT PLANNING

The fire support plan is developed along with the scheme of maneuver, which it supports and complements. It discusses the use of all available indirect and direct fires. The goal is to destroy as many enemy elements as possible and to suppress any others to keep them from firing on friendly forces. The company commander and FSO plan indirect fires; however, the platoon leader may plan and request more targets if needed.

After receiving the company offensive fire plan, the platoon leader checks it to ensure that targets are planned on all known or suspected enemy positions in front of, on, behind, and to the flanks of the objective. The company defensive fire plan should list planned targets in front of, on, behind, and to the flanks of BPs; likely areas for these targets include observed choke points, avenues of approach, obstacles, and likely support by fire positions. If more targets are necessary for either the offensive or defensive plan, the platoon leader coordinates them with the commander and the FIST.

SECTION 2 - ARMY AVIATION

Army aviation assets are important participants on today's battlefield. Their flexibility enables them to perform a variety of roles: reconnaissance, security, attack, transportation, and resupply. Army aviation is a divisional asset that may be attached or placed OPCON to brigades, but rarely to lower-level units.

AIR CAVALRY

Air cavalry, found in division and regimental cavalry units, is organized, equipped, and trained to conduct reconnaissance and security missions. The primary aircraft in air cavalry units is the OH-58D. This helicopter provides substantial limited-visibility and all-weather acquisition capability. The aircraft features a stabilized mast mounted sight (MMS) with a low-light TV camera, TIS, and laser range finder/designator. It can acquire armored vehicle targets at night at ranges up to 10 kilometers. It can be armed with a wide assortment of weapons and thus can be configured for a variety of threat situations (see Figure 6-19).

Figure 6-19. OH-58D armed helicopter.

ATTACK HELICOPTERS

Attack helicopter units operate either as separate elements within a division or as part of the air cavalry. Attack helicopter companies are maneuver units and are normally integrated into the ground scheme of maneuver. When working with ground maneuver units, the attack helicopter unit may be placed OPCON to the ground force. Normally, it is OPCON to a maneuver brigade or regiment; on rare occasions, it can be OPCON to a battalion or squadron.

Aeroscouts usually arrive before attack aircraft, establish communications with ground forces, and coordinate the situation and mission with the commander. The aeroscouts identify targets, choose general BPs, and control attack helicopter fires.

The attack helicopter is primarily employed as an antiarmor weapon system. Figure 6-20 shows two types of attack aircraft in the Army's inventory, the AH-64 Apache and the AH-1 Cobra. (NOTE: The Army is scheduled to field a new helicopter, the RAH-66 Comanche, which will feature both attack and reconnaissance capabilities.)

Figure 6-20. Army attack helicopters.

SECTION 3 - COMBAT ENGINEERS

Brigade/regiment and battalion/squadron commanders decide how best to employ their engineer assets: as a distinct unit, attached to their subordinate elements, or in DS of the subordinate elements. In fast-moving offensive operations, one technique is to place engineers OPCON to the lead company team or troop to support breaching operations. In the defense, commanders generally keep engineer units intact to construct major obstacles and execute survivability operations, designating the priority of work to be accomplished. Engineers are trained to fight as infantry as a secondary mission; however, they are employed as infantry only if absolutely necessary.

CAPABILITIES

The combat engineer platoon is organized, trained, and equipped to conduct mobility, countermobility, and survivability missions in support of ground operations. The engineers' specific tasks and responsibilities in these three roles are determined by the higher unit commander.

Organization and equipment

Organization. The combat engineer platoon consists of three squads mounted in M113s (see Figure 6-21). Each squad has a demolition set, chain saw, and two mine detectors. The platoon headquarters is authorized one M9 ACE, which is highly mobile, armored, and amphibious (see Figure 6-22).

Figure 6-21. Combat engineer platoon organization.

Figure 6-22. M9 armored combat earthmover.

Equipment. The platoon may also be supplemented with equipment from the engineer company, including the items covered in the following discussion.

Armored vehicle launched bridge (AVLB) or Wolverine. The AVLB uses an M48 or M60 tank chassis to transport, launch, and retrieve a 60-foot bridge. The bridge is capable of supporting military load class (MLC) 70 tracked vehicles across a 15-meter gap (see Figure 6-23). The Wolverine, which will replace the AVLB, is based on an M1 chassis. It will be able to support
MLC 70 traffic across gaps of up to 24 meters.

MICLIC launcher. The MICLIC system employs a rope-like demolition charge to create lanes for combat vehicles during minefield breaching operations. The charge, containing nearly a ton of composition C4 explosive, can clear a lane up to 100 meters long and 14 meters wide. The MICLIC launcher can be mounted either on a towed trailer or on an M60A1 chassis (this vehicle is called the armored vehicle launched MICLIC, or AVLM). It fires a 5-inch rocket motor that tows the MICLIC over the target minefield (see Figure 6-24). The system, designed for deployment in virtually all types of terrain and weather conditions, can be reloaded with a new charge and rocket motor in about 30 minutes.

Figure 6-23. Armored vehicle launched bridge.

Figure 6-24. Mine-clearing line charge system.

Operational considerations

In mobility operations, the engineer platoon can provide the following support:

• Obstacle reduction. The engineers can reduce or negate the effects of obstacles, thereby improving their supported unit's maneuver capability.
• Route construction. The engineers can construct, improve, and maintain roads, bridges, and fords.

In a countermobility role, engineers can assist with obstacle construction to obstruct the enemy's scheme of maneuver. They can reinforce terrain and existing obstacles to disrupt, fix, turn, or block the enemy force.

Engineers can improve survivability by constructing dug-in positions and overhead protection to reduce the effectiveness of enemy weapons.

ENGINEER SUPPORT TO THE TANK PLATOON

Combat engineers normally support the company team as a platoon under the direction of the company team commander. During planning for mobility, countermobility, and survivability work, the engineers can advise the commander on construction time and materials needed; the company normally must order much of the material through battalion supply channels.

The tank platoon leader frequently will be tasked to provide security while the engineer platoon conducts its missions. To speed up the construction process, the engineers may need the help of armor crewmen. Additional details on engineer support and employment are in Chapters 3, 4, and 5 of this manual.

SECTION 4 - AIR DEFENSE

Air defense assets are scarce; maneuver units cannot always count on receiving dedicated air defense protection. As a result, the tank platoon must be able to protect itself from enemy air attacks during all combat operations. Air defense measures include actions to avoid enemy air attack, actions to limit the damage if an attack occurs, and (as necessary) actions required to fight back.

AIR DEFENSE WARNINGS

Local air defense warnings are used to indicate the air threat. They are used in conjunction with the weapon control status (discussed in the active air defense portion of this section) to provide early warning of and planned responses to enemy aircraft. There are three local air defense warning levels:

• DYNAMITE. Aircraft are inbound or attacking locally now.
• LOOKOUT. Aircraft are in the area of interest but are not threatening. They may be inbound, but there is time to react.
• SNOWMAN. There are no aircraft posing a threat at this time.

NOTE: Air defense warnings of RED, YELLOW, and WHITE are established at levels higher than division. These roughly parallel the local warning levels, but they cover a larger area of operations, such as a theater.

PASSIVE AIR DEFENSE

Passive air defense is the tank platoon's first line of defense against enemy air attack. It includes all measures, other than active defense, taken to minimize the effects of hostile air action. There are two types of passive air defense: attack avoidance and damage-limiting measures.

Attack avoidance

If an enemy pilot cannot find friendly elements, he cannot attack them. The platoon should use concealment, camouflage, deception, communications security, and any other necessary action to prevent enemy detection. Refer to the discussion of OPSEC in Appendix D of this manual.

Whenever possible, static positions must provide effective overhead concealment. When concealment is not available, vehicles must be camouflaged to blend into the natural surroundings. Track marks leading into the position must be obliterated. All shiny objects that could reflect light and attract attention must be covered.

Damage-limiting measures

Dispersion. Dispersion is one of the most effective ways to reduce the effects of enemy air attack. It is essential when a unit is occupying static positions such as assembly areas or is preparing to cross a water obstacle or pass through a breached obstacle. When the platoon is on the move and air guards identify an enemy air attack, vehicles disperse quickly, move to covered and concealed positions if possible, and stop (a stationary vehicle is more difficult to see than a moving vehicle). Refer to the discussion of the react to air attack battle drill in Chapter 3 of this manual. An early warning system that includes both visual and audible signals can help to limit damage by enabling the platoon to begin dispersion at the earliest possible moment.

Cover. Another damage-limiting measure is the use of natural or man-made cover to reduce the effects of enemy munitions. Folds in the earth, depressions, buildings, and sandbagged positions can provide this protection.

ACTIVE AIR DEFENSE

Although passive measures are the first line of defense against air attack, the tank platoon must be prepared to engage enemy aircraft. The decision to fight back against an air threat is based on the situation and the capabilities of organic weapon systems. All platoon members must understand that they can defend against a direct attack but cannot engage aircraft that are not attacking them unless the weapon control status allows it.

Weapon control status

The weapon control status describes the relative degree of control in effect for air defense fires. It applies to all weapon systems. The platoon leader receives the status from the company or troop commander. The three control statuses are the following:

• WEAPONS FREE. Crews can fire at any air target not positively identified as friendly. This is the least restrictive weapon control status.
• WEAPONS TIGHT. Crews can fire only at air targets positively identified as hostile according to the prevailing hostile criteria.
• WEAPONS HOLD. Crews are prohibited from firing except in self-defense or in response to a formal order. This is the most restrictive control status.

Platoon air defense fires

When it must fight back, the platoon can use the tank's main gun and machine guns against attacking aircraft.

Machine gun fires. Engaging aircraft with volume fire is the key to effective use of the machine guns. These fires must be coordinated to be effective. Delivered on the platoon leader's command, they are directed at an aim point; gunners do not attempt to track the target with machine guns. Figures 6-25 and 6-26 illustrate guidelines and procedures for selecting machine gun aim points. These rules are simple and logical; everyone in the platoon must learn and retain them.

Main gun fires. Several types of main gun ammunition are effective against helicopters, including MPAT, high explosive antitank (HEAT), and armor-piercing discarding sabot (APDS) rounds. The main gun aim point is always center of mass.

NOTE: Refer to the battle drill for reaction to air attack in Chapter 3 of this manual. For further information on MPAT ammunition, refer to FM 17-12-1-1.

Figure 6-25. Machine gun aim points against helicopters.

Figure 6-26. Machine gun aim points against
high-performance aircraft.

AIR DEFENSE ARTILLERY SYSTEMS

The mission of the ADA is to protect friendly forces and selected geo-political assets from aerial attack, missile attack, and surveillance. The air defense commander employs several types of systems, at various operational levels, to provide low- to high-altitude air defense coverage.

Corps level and higher

At corps level and higher, the primary ADA systems are the Avenger and the Patriot (see Figure 6-27).

Figure 6-27. Air defense systems at corps level and above.

Tactical level (division and below)

At the tactical level, low- to medium-altitude air defense is accomplished by the air defense battalion organic to the division. The battalion or squadron uses the systems described in the following paragraphs to complement and support the maneuver force.

Stinger. This is the primary air defense weapon system for the battalion or squadron, employing short-range, shoulder-fired, heat-seeking guided missiles (see Figure 6-28). The Stinger is designed to counter high-speed, low-level ground attack aircraft. It is also a lethal weapon against helicopters, observation and transport aircraft, and UAVs. The missile has a range in excess of 5 kilometers.

The Stinger can be employed as a man-portable air defense system (MANPADS). The two-man Stinger team, consisting of an operator and a crew chief, is transported in a HMMWV or in the Bradley Stinger fighting vehicle (BSFV) or Bradley Linebacker vehicle. (NOTE: The BSFV and Bradley Linebacker are discussed later in this section.)

Figure 6-28. Stinger air defense system.

Bradley Stinger fighting vehicle. The BSFV, which replaces the Vulcan air defense system, provides the air defender with armor protection and gives him the ability to maneuver with the supported force and position the Stinger system forward on the battlefield (see Figure 6-29). The Stinger team must dismount to fire the missiles.

The BSFV carries a basic load of six Stinger missiles as its primary air defense weapon; the Bradley's 25-mm chain gun can be used to augment the Stinger and cover dead space to a range of 2,000 meters. The vehicle also carries five TOW missiles. Future versions of the BSFV will include the Stinger vehicle-mounted launcher (SVML) in place of the TOW system. The SVML will provide the vehicle with fire-on-the-move capability.

Figure 6-29. Bradley Stinger fighting vehicle.

Bradley Linebacker. This vehicle replaces the BSFV's TOW system with four ready-to-fire Stinger missiles, housed in the Stinger vehicle mounted launcher (SVML). The Bradley Linebacker, with its ability to shoot on the move, is designed specifically to provide air defense on the battlefield.

SECTION 5 - AIR SUPPORT

CLOSE AIR SUPPORT

Close air support (CAS), provided by the Air Force, can be employed to destroy large enemy armor formations. CAS strikes can be either preplanned (at brigade, battalion, or squadron level) or requested on an immediate-need basis through the battalion forward air controller (FAC). The FAC on the ground or in the air acts as a link between the ground element and the CAS aircraft.

Army air cavalry is best equipped to coordinate with Air Force assets in joint air attack team (JAAT) and attack helicopter operations. The air cavalry can see the battlefield and the target better than ground forces can, and it has the radio equipment needed to talk to Air Force aircraft. The attack aircraft organic to air cavalry units can assist CAS aircraft in suppressing the enemy ADA threat.

MARKING FRIENDLY POSITIONS

Whenever possible, friendly positions should be marked during close air strikes, especially when friendly troops are within 300 meters of the target. Resources for marking positions include the following:

• Smoke. The smoke grenade is the most commonly used marker, but it has limitations. Wind may cause smoke to drift above trees, and some colors can blend with the background. Violet or white smoke shows up well against most background colors.
• Flares. Rocket or 40-mm flares are useful for attracting attention at night; they can sometimes be employed effectively during the day.
• Mirrors and signal panels. Signal mirrors are probably the best ground-to-air devices for attracting attention. If the sun is shining and the operator is skillful, pilots can see a mirror flash miles away. VS-17 signal panels are also good visual references for pilots.
• Lights. Pocket-size, battery-powered strobe lights produce brilliant white or blue flashes at about 1 1/2-second intervals. The flash is visible at night for 1 to 3 miles. Vehicle lights, such as an unshielded red taillight, are visible to a pilot for several miles at night. Chemical glow lights can also be used to mark friendly positions. One technique that can be used at night is to tie an infrared (IR) or green chem light on a 10-foot string. When aircraft are in the area, a crewman can swing the light in a circular motion to mark the location.