IN0726 Lesson 2

LESSON 2

PLAN AN ATTACK ON URBANIZED TERRAIN AT BATTALION TASK FORCE LEVEL

The task taught in this lesson consists of:

Determining the tactical impact of urban areas
Identifying the characteristics of urban offensive operations
Identifying planning considerations for the attack on an urban area
Determining the use of artillery and other types of combat support in a MOUT offensive engagement
Determining tactical considerations for an attack on urbanized terrain at battalion task force level and completing Paragraph 3 of a Battalion OPORD.

Task:	Plan an attack on urbanized terrain at battalion task force level.
Condition:	Given extracts of doctrinal literature, an offensive tactical situation for a battalion TF S3, and a series of multiple-choice questions relating to tactical reasoning or tactical situations.
Standard:	The attack plan will be IAW subcourse text, FM 90-10 and FM 90-10-1 and will include the use of supporting artillery and other types of combat support.

EXERCISE 1: DETERMINING THE TACTICAL IMPACT OF URBAN AREAS

Urbanization

Many areas of the world, especially Western Europe, have experienced a massive growth in built-up areas and man-made changes to the natural landscape. These changes significantly affect potential future battlefields.

Avoidance of built-up areas is no longer possible. Rather, military operations on urbanized terrain are an integral part of combat operations and present special opportunities and challenges to the battalion task force commander. MOUT operations pertain to attacking through an area that is interspersed by many small villages and towns, some larger towns, and major urban complexes.

The following example illustrates the effect of urbanization on military operations on urbanized terrain:

The Meiningein Corridor is a broad, high-speed approach permitting armor forces some freedom to maneuver. Throughout the corridor, however, there are a number of villages and towns flanked by restrictive terrain. To the defender, this corridor offers an in-depth system of instant battle positions in the succession of villages spaced from 2 to 4 kilometers apart. Mutual support can be achieved through this corridor by integrating village battle positions with adjacent natural terrain obstacles and positions.
To an attacker, the corridor's urban features represent a series of man-made obstacles. Advancing forces that attempt to bypass individual villages and towns are susceptible to flank attacks. The attacker may be required to conduct frequent combined arms attacks which greatly reduce offensive momentum and increase battle losses.

Definition of a Built-up Area

A built-up area is any group of buildings designed for habitation or commercial purposes, such as a village, town, or city. Built-up areas have become battle areas, because their locations control lines of communication, their buildings provide shelter against extremes in weather, or because of their political or psychological value. The seizure of a strongly defended built-up area is a costly and time-consuming operation.

Categories of Built-up Areas

There are four different categories of built-up areas. Each presents different problems and opportunities to tactical commanders. These categories are:

Villages (population of 3,000 or less)
Strip areas (generally interconnecting built-up areas between villages and towns along roads and valleys)
Towns and small cities (population up to 100,000 and not part of a major urban complex)
Large cities with associated urban sprawl (population up to millions, covering 100 or more square miles).

Villages. The typical village especially in Europe, is characterized by stone, brick, or concrete stores, houses, and barns in the village center with a number of more modern and more lightly constructed houses on the outskirts. Villages provide ready-made cover for platoons and company teams and, in some cases, even the task force. They can be readily developed into strongpoints through the application of obstacles, carefully sited weapons systems, preplanned fires, and improved fields of fire.

Strip Areas. Areas where houses, stores, and factories have grown up along roads or down valleys between towns and villages. These areas provide the same advantages to the defender as those discussed for villages.

Towns and Small Cities. Towns and small cities that have a definable limit present different problems. The outlying terrain can dictate the value of the town within the operational concept of the force. If the town can be easily bypassed and sufficient roads exist around the area to support operations, then it is of limited value operationally. The town's operational worth is high if the adjacent terrain is restrictive, if it provides good supporting defensive positions, and if routes of communication pass through it. The decision to attack a town or city must be made by corps or division commanders because of the forces required and the time consumed. Further, the decision to attack a city may be tantamount to a decision to destroy it.

Large Cities/Major Urban Complexes. Major urban complexes such as FRANKFURT/MAINZ/HANAU or the STUTTGART area are so large that they can not be captured or defended in their entirety, and they cannot be avoided by bypassing. The commander has no choice but to conduct the whole range of military operations within them: attack, defense, and retrograde. These areas have the characteristics of a concrete jungle, and as in any jungle, visibility is reduced and cover and concealment abound.

Characteristics of the downtown area include:

Multi-storied with few or no gaps between buildings
Streets and lanes are narrow
Construction usually of steel-reinforced concrete
Requires building by building clearance
Meticulous centralized planning
Large number of troops
Decentralized control
Control is difficult
Narrow frontages.

Characteristics of suburban areas include:

Wide avenues, lawns, parks, trees, etc.
Normally of lighter construction, one or two stories
Fronts become broader
Streets are wider
The use of cover - care must be taken
Many different types of tactics can be used
Flexibility is the key in this type of area.

Urban Terrain Analysis at Battalion Level and Below

Building Characteristics. Most urban areas resemble the generalized model shown in Figure 2-1. Urban areas differ in their location, size, and history. Towns, for example, have lower buildings than cities. They may not have developed any outlying highrise areas. In general, however, an observer flying over any city or town will notice a resemblance to this urban model, especially if the area has been redeveloped in the past 30 years.

Figure 2-1. Typical Urban Area

Each of the model's regions has distinctive characteristics. Outlying industrial areas and residential sprawl, for instance, consist of low buildings, one to three stories tall. Buildings are detached and arranged in irregular patterns along the streets. There are many open areas.

The core's periphery consists of narrow streets (12 to 20 meters wide) with continuous fronts of brick and heavy-walled concrete buildings. The height of buildings is generally uniform: two or three stories in small towns, five to ten stories in large cities.

In most cities, the core has undergone more recent development than the core periphery. As a result, the two regions are often quite different. Typical city cores of today are made up of highrise buildings, which vary greatly in height. Furthermore, modern urban planning allows much more open space between buildings than has been the case in the past and is still the case in core peripheries. Outlying highrise areas are dominated by this construction style to an even greater degree than city cores.

Commercial ribbons are rows of stores, businesses, etc., built along either side of major streets through the built-up areas. Generally, those streets are 25 meters wide or wider. The buildings are uniformly two to three stories tall, about a story taller than the dwellings found behind them.

In addition to the height of buildings already mentioned, each of the urban regions also contains characteristic types of buildings.

The two basic construction types are mass (or frameless) and framed. Mass construction buildings are those in which the outside walls support the weight of the building and its inhabitants. The oldest mass construction buildings are usually made of thick brick or stone walls. Mass construction buildings normally have thicker walls and fewer windows than framed buildings.

Modern types of mass construction buildings are wall and slab structures such as many modern apartments and hotels, and tilt-up structures, commonly used for industry or storage.

Framed buildings are those supported by a skeleton of columns and beams. They are usually taller than frameless buildings. The exterior walls are non-load bearing, and are referred to as either heavy clad or light clad. Heavy-clad walls were common when framed buildings were first introduced. These walls are made of brick and block, and in some cases are almost as thick as frameless brick walls, although not as protective. Light-clad walls are more modern, and may consist of nothing more than glass.

Terrain Aspects of Buildings

Observation and fire. Buildings on the edge of a town often provide better fields of fire than buildings in the interior. In the town itself, tall buildings with many windows often provide the best fields of fire, especially if the buildings are separated.

Cover and concealment. Buildings with thick walls and few, narrow windows provide the best cover and concealment. Roofs provide little protection; troops are better protected in the upper stories than right under the roof. (An exception to this rule is the parking garage.) Floor layouts with many small rooms provide more protection than floor layouts with few, large rooms. Interior load-bearing walls provide good protection. Non-load-bearing walls usually provide better protection the older they are.

Obstacles. Doors and fire barriers are common in commercial buildings. They become obstacles if they are shut. Furniture and appliances can also become obstacles in a building. Barbed wire, mines, etc., can be used effectively inside a building, because movement is channeled.

Key terrain. Key "terrain" in a building includes entrances, hallways, and stairs. Troops that control those places control the building. An attacker, for instance, will be able to isolate the defender so that he cannot escape or be reinforced. A defender will be able to deny the building to the attacker, or make the seizure of the building so costly that the attacker is forced to bypass it. Another key feature is a room which is large enough to permit firing of recoilless weapons, Dragons, or TOW's from the inside. Balconies and mezzanines with enough backblast area are particularly useful, as they provide an elevated platform for those weapons.

Avenues of approach. The best way to attack a building is from the top down. The most important avenue of approach to look for is therefore one that leads most quickly to the top. If there is an outside way to the top which has cover and concealment, that is the best way into the building. Examples of such routes are fire escapes, drainpipes, or adjacent buildings. If there is no such route, attacking troops must use the stairs, get to the top of the building, and clear from the top down. Defending troops will likely control the elevator, so an attacker will find the stairs a better approach.

This is a guide only. Leaders should evaluate their own buildings based on that information.

Sources of Urban Information

Operations in urban terrain require detailed intelligence. There are many sources of information available to you as a battalion staff officer. Below are a few that are considered available and feasible.

Intelligence information from higher headquarters
Military maps (show details of terrain adjacent to urban area)
Civilian maps (road, and tourist)
Local civilians
Own troops familiar with the area
City directories
Telephone books
Government plans and maps (engineer, police, fire)
Air photos
Reconnaissance patrols
Tourist information centers.

An extract of FM 90-10 contains additional information on urbanization, built-up areas, and building and street patterns. Read these pages now before proceeding to Practical Exercise 1.

EXERCISE 2: IDENTIFYING THE CHARACTERISTICS OF URBAN OPERATIONS

Introduction

The attack of an urban area, regardless of its size and the level of command involved, should be considered only as the last resort, and only when major advantage accrues to the attacker through its seizure or control.

Attacks against urban areas may be launched for the following reasons:

Gain a Critical Objective. Selected built-up areas will be attacked to gain a critical objective or to deny an advantage to the enemy. The objective may be a vital bridge, transportation facilities that are required to sustain future combat operations, or strategic industrial or vital communications facilities.

Rupture the Defense. The enemy will frequently prepare built-up areas as strongpoints to gain favorable defensive advantages. The elimination of selected strongpoints may be required in order to break through his defensive system.

Facilitate Future Operations. Built-up areas will frequently preclude bypass. Commanders will have to overcome those obstacles that restrict or control their avenues of approach in order to continue the attack.

Deal the Enemy a Decisive Psychological Blow. The two basic forms of offense, the hasty and deliberate attack, are applicable in urban terrain. In the attack of a large built-up area, a battalion or company normally participates as part of a larger force and may be directed to a specific mission; for example, attack, isolate, contain, provide security, or act as a reserve.

Hasty Attack

The hasty attack is the most desirable, because an enemy who is allowed to prepare himself in urban terrain will rapidly gain strength by reinforcing the terrain. Hasty attacks are directed against lightly defended built-up areas, and they may be conducted from the march with shock action and firepower. This action attempts to strike a fatal blow to the enemy's defenses before he can reorganize or reinforce his defense. When conducting a hasty attack in a MOUT environment, three tasks are essential to success:

Locate a weak spot or gap in enemy defenses
Fix forward enemy elements
Rapidly move through or around the gap or weak spot to be exploited.

Deliberate Attack

Deliberate attacks are normally conducted when the enemy has established a strong defensive position, when the urban area is large or severely congested, or when surprise is lost. The conduct of a deliberate attack involves three phases: isolation, securing a foothold, and clearing the area. One or more phases may be planned for and accomplished concurrently, based on the commander's intent, enemy strength, size and construction of the urban area, and troops and equipment available. It is imperative that each step progresses without hesitation into and through the clearance of the designated area. A task force or company's forward progress insures that the momentum of the attack is maintained and that continuous pressure on the enemy will prevent his orderly withdrawal.

Phase One: Isolation. This is done by securing dominant terrain around the built-up area and restricting the enemy's ability to resupply or reinforce. The size of the force required depends on the availability of dominant terrain and observation. Isolation becomes the overall concept of the operation if the mission is only to contain the enemy and prevent a possible withdrawal.

Phase Two: Secure a Foothold. A foothold should be secured in the urban area that provides cover from direct enemy observation and fire and allows for forward displacement of attacking forces and equipment (including forward supply points and aid stations). This action is required each time the attacker moves from a position of poor cover and concealment to a more concealed terrain position; for example, from open terrain to a residential area, or from a residential area to a business district. The foothold is normally one or two city blocks assigned to a team as an intermediate objective. The inferior cover and concealment should be offset by isolating the objective with fire and smoke or by attacking during period of limited visibility.

Phase Three: Clear the Area. This will always be the last phase, and it can be done either as a systematic clearance or a rapid advance.

Rapid Advance - A rapid advance may be used when a critical objective, such as an airfield, public utility bridge, installation, or building needs to be secured quickly. A strong, rapid advance force drives toward the critical objective as quickly as possible, clearing only that part of the zone necessary to sustain the advance. As the force moves forward, the remainder of the attacking force clears the zone (including the areas hastily cleared by the rapid advance). Disruption of the enemy's system of defense by the rapid advance force should make zone clearance easier. Ideally, the rapid advance force moves through an area of known enemy weaknesses. Local air superiority and suppression of enemy air defense weapons may permit helicopters to insert the rapid advance force on or near the critical objective.

Systematic Clearance - If a critical objective has not been identified, or if a strong enemy or densely built-up area prevents a rapid advance, the systematic clearance may be used. It may also be used when the objective is simply to clear the urban area. A main attack is made by one company team placed on a narrow front against either a weakness in the enemy position or an area of lightly constructed buildings. Remaining teams move along the flanks of the main attack and advance more slowly than the main attack. Either team can enter the corridor cleared by the main attack to assault the flanks of a strong enemy force. The width of the zone will vary with the density of buildings. In suburbs each team may cover several blocks; in a town or city with large, heavily constructed buildings, each team should be assigned a zone no more than one block wide. Boundaries should be placed along the sides of streets to give one unit responsibility for the entire street.

Defended Strip Developments

Defended strip developments must not be permitted to slow the momentum of team and task force attacks. These developments are not easily bypassed, and therefore, the alternative of not attacking seldom exists. Strip areas should normally be penetrated at their narrowest point by a fast-moving armor-heavy force supported by a heavy concentration of direct and indirect fire. If the enemy does not withdraw after the penetration, these areas must be cleared by follow-on forces.

An extract of FM 90-10-1 contains additional information on the conduct of the hasty and deliberate attack against an urban area. Read these pages now before proceeding to Practical Exercise 2.

EXERCISE 3: IDENTIFYING PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE ATTACK ON AN URBAN AREA

A plan for the attack on a well-defended urban area must be based on the mission, enemy terrain, and troops available (METT). As in any attack, the plan must have a scheme of maneuver and a plan of fire support. These are developed concurrently and are closely integrated. The plan must also cover the details of security, combat service support, and communications.

Scheme of Maneuver

In an attack on a large urban area, a battalion may participate as part of an attacking brigade. In that case, the battalion may have to isolate the objective or seize a foothold. If the objective is a smaller urban area, a battalion or a company may accomplish the entire mission independently, assigning subordinate tasks to its companies or platoons.

Fire Support Plan

Extensive air and artillery bombardment may precede the ground attack of an urban area. The attacker's supporting fire helps him by suppressing the defender's fire, destroying his positions, and restricting his movement.

Use of TACAIR and artillery in areas having heavy-clad construction will make rubble, which will restrict the movements of attacking troops. For that reason, an artillery preparation should be short and violent, like "time on target" (T.O.T.). Assaulting troops must follow the artillery fire closely to exploit the dazed state of the defenders. Supporting fire during the foothold phase of an attack suppresses enemy weapons while the maneuver units move to their objectives. Because indirect fire is less effective in urban areas, attackers use tanks, CEV's, or direct-firing artillery pieces to provide fire support.

Control Measures

The coordination and control of forces and fires is greatly complicated by the restrictive nature of the urban environment. To help offset control problems caused by poor communications, restricted observation, high noise levels, and limited freedom of movement, the commander must prepare a detailed plan with more restrictive control measures for decentralized execution at the lowest level. Thus, because of the basic nature of urbanized terrain, planning and control must be centralized but execution must be decentralized.

Objectives

While dominant features that provide observation or physical control over access routes through or around the built-up area remain important, additional considerations must be given to its facilities and man-made objects. Communication networks, whether vehicular, rail, nautical, or telephonic/telegraphic, play an increasingly significant role.

Objectives are relatively shallow. Initial objectives to gain a foothold are usually located on the outer edge of the built-up area; and when occupied, they provide concealment and cover for the attacking forces. In Phase II (seizure of a foothold) the battalion normally assigns companies the first block of buildings as intermediate objectives. An intermediate objective may be assigned by any commander when its seizure is essential to the accomplishment of the mission. When an enemy cannot be bypassed, the assignment of intermediate objectives will frequently be required. When feasible, final objectives are located on the exit side or beyond the built-up area. Key buildings or groups of buildings or critical areas along the route of attack simplify the assignment of objectives and facilitate reports of their seizure. As the attacker does not bypass buildings and take a chance of being attacked from the rear, it is necessary to enter each building during the progress of the attack. Buildings will be assigned as objectives to rifle squads, and if the buildings are large enough, to rifle platoons or companies.

Phaselines

Phaselines are routinely employed to enhance control by regulating the advance of attacking forces. Phaselines may be used in lieu of objectives. Principal streets, rivers, canals, and trolley and railroad lines which are easily identified, are appropriate for use as phaselines. When phaselines are used, they should be placed on the near side or friendly side of the feature selected and not down the center or on the far or enemy side. Phaselines will be used frequently as intermediate objectives.

Boundaries

At brigade level and below, boundaries are habitually used to control fires and designate areas of responsibility. In urban areas of semi-detached construction where observation and movement are less restricted, boundaries are normally established in alleys or within a block of buildings to insure that both sides of a street are included in the zone of one unit. In block type areas where maneuver space does not exist within the block, boundaries are drawn in the street. However, they are drawn on the side of the street so that the street inclusive is included in the zone of one unit. Never split a street between units. Zones of action are narrower within urban areas due to the terrain and tactical necessity for control.

Checkpoints and Contact Points

Street corners, buildings, railway crossings, bridges, or other easily identified features may be designated as checkpoints or contact points. These points facilitate reporting locations and may identify specific points where the commander desires units to make physical contact.

Formations and Frontages

Frontages assigned to units for the attack of a built-up area will depend upon the enemy strength, size of buildings, and resistance anticipated. Frontages assigned to units must be commensurate with their capabilities. Companies normally attack on a l- to 2-block front and battalions a 2- to 4-block front. Each assigned frontage is based upon the average city block being approximately 175 meters wide.

The formation used in the attack depends on the width and depth of the zone to be cleared, the character of the area, enemy resistance, and the formation adopted by the next higher command. Normally, the formation of the battalion will provide for two companies in the attacking echelon. Consideration should be given to leading the foothold phase with tanks when available.

Reserves

The size and composition of the reserve should parallel that of the main attack. The reserve should be mobile and prepared to influence the action. Reserve forces are kept close to the attacking echelon, because restricted routes of movement may increase the time required for their commitment to action. Concealment and cover in the built-up area favors positioning of the reserve closely behind the attacking echelon.

If a company reserve is available, it will normally follow within the same block so that it can immediately influence the attack. Battalion reserves normally follow 1 to 2 blocks to the rear of the company reserve making the main attack.

The reserve is employed to:

Exploit a weakness or success
Reinforce the main attack by fire or by attacking from another direction
Conduct detailed clearance of bypassed enemy positions
Conduct security missions as required
Insure the mission of an attacking units.
Maintain contact with adjacent units.

Employment of Tanks and Infantry

Tanks may support by fire when lead units are seizing a foothold. In house to house and street fighting, tanks move down the streets, protected by the infantry, and support them by firing their main guns and machineguns into enemy positions or OP's. The tank is the most effective weapon for heavy fire against structures. Tanks with dozer blades can be used to clear rubble.

Tanks are, however, vulnerable in urban areas. Streets and alleys constitute ready-made firing lanes and killing zones for defenders. All vehicular traffic is greatly restricted, canalized, and vulnerable to ambush and short-range attack by various weapons. Tanks are at a disadvantage, because their main guns cannot be depressed or elevated sufficiently to fire into basements or upper floors of buildings at close range. However, the infantry fighting vehicle (BIFV) with +60 to -10 degrees elevation of the 25mm automatic gun and 7.62mm coax machinegun, has a much greater capability in this role. With firing port weapons, the BIFV is also capable of placing suppressive fire at ground level to the flanks and rear simultaneously. A tank is restricted in its ability to provide this support.

In movement down narrow streets or streets with narrow paths through the debris, dismounted infantry should move ahead of the tanks, clearing the buildings on each side. When needed, the tanks come up to places secured by the infantry to hit suitable targets. When a section of the area is cleared, the infantry again moves forward to clear the next section. Due to the restricted movement and the limited observation of button-up tanks, the infantry must clear the route in advance of the tanks. The tanks and infantry should use the traveling overwatch movement technique. Infantrymen communicate with the tank crews using the external telephone.

For movement down wider streets or streets not choked with rubble, the lead infantry unit should have a section of attached tanks, one tank on each side of the street. Other tanks should move behind the infantry and fire at targets in the upper stories of the buildings. The infantry can secure the forward movement of the lead tanks, while the rearward tanks overwatch the movement of the lead units.

Some streets are too narrow for that type of tank support. If an infantry unit must travel them, it must use single tanks for support. Those tanks will move and shoot as described above.

A battalion may have a CEV or a number of artillery pieces attached. Those weapons should be used for direct fire in the same way as tanks. They should be carefully used against targets which other weapons cannot destroy. Great care should be taken to secure them by assigning an infantry squad or fire team to each gun for close-in security.

Where feasible, tanks may drive inside buildings or behind walls for protection from enemy antitank fire. Buildings should first be cleared by the infantry and checked to see if the ground floor will support the tank or that there is no basement where the tank can become trapped. When moving, all bridges and overpasses should be checked for mines and boobytraps and for load capacity. Specific infantry elements should be assigned to protect specific tanks.

Security

Due to the nature of urban combat, it is necessary to increase overall security precautions for attacking forces while operating in highly restrictive areas. It is also essential to provide security forces to escort combat service support and combat support units and to monitor, patrol, and guard possible infiltration routes. Additionally, measures must be taken to guard against sabotage, guerilla warfare, and intelligence-gathering by a hostile population.

The problem of controlling and administering to civilians usually accompanies urban combat. A population swollen by refugees will further complicate the problem. Friendly local authorities should be used whenever possible to control the civilian population. In all cases the movement of civilians is kept to a minimum.

Looting

Built-up areas present many opportunities for looting. As men acquire loot, they discard needed equipment, which results in an overall loss of combat efficiency. No matter how well-trained or well-disciplined a unit may be, troops will loot unless precautions are taken in advance. The practice of looting detracts from the soldier's alertness, reduces his initiative and efficiency, and may delay the progress of the attack. All leaders must insure that orders against looting are obeyed and that violators are promptly and appropriately punished.

An extract of FM 90-10-1 contains a further discussion of planning considerations for the attack of an urban area. Read these pages now before proceeding to Practical Exercise 3.

EXERCISE 4: DETERMINING THE USE OF ARTILLERY AND OTHER TYPES OF COMBAT SUPPORT IN A MOUT OFFENSIVE ENGAGEMENT

Scout Platoon

The scout platoon may be used to screen an exposed flank or provide rear area security by patrolling previously cleared areas. Its capability for reconnaissance and security is somewhat reduced by the buildings in the area. The scouts can also act as a portion of the isolating force and help isolate a village or small town. Scouts must be prepared to dismount and go into buildings either for reconnaissance or to set up observation posts.

Antitank Platoon

The long-range fires of the antitank platoon of a mechanized infantry battalion can be used on terrain on the outskirts of an urban area to isolate it or support the attack while a foothold is being secured. Within the urban area, antitank weapons are primarily used to defeat tanks. Each has a limited capability against bunkers, buildings, and other urban or fortified targets. TOW's are best employed from upper stories or rooftops of buildings to obtain long range fields of fire. When deciding to dismount his TOW's, the commander must consider the advantages of long-range fires versus the disadvantage of the loss of mobility. In many cases, the best technique will be to keep the TOW's out of the city altogether, employing them on terrain on the outskirts. The minimum arming distances for TOW's/Dragons (65 meters) may restrict employment of these weapons. They cannot be used in a direct fire role against a target that is closer than 65 meters; for example, across a city street.

Another consideration for the employment of antitank weapons in an urban area is backblast. In urban combat the backblast area becomes more hazardous due to rubble and the channeling effect caused by narrow streets and alleys. The effects of backblast within buildings and structures will dictate where to locate firing positions. Proper ventilation must be present in order to fire a TOW weapon in an enclosed room.

Obstacles such as telephone wires and rubble must also be considered since they may restrict the flight of the wire guided missiles.

The Heavy Mortar Platoon

The heavy mortar platoon is usually in general support. Forward observers move with the forward units to adjust fire on targets as requested by the supported troops. The greatest impact of the urban environment on indirect fires is overhead masking of targets. While all indirect fire weapons are subject to overhead masking, mortars are less affected than field artillery weapons because of the higher trajectory of the mortar round. Thus mortars provide the most responsive indirect fire to hit targets of opportunity at the close ranges typical of urban combat.

Ground Surveillance Radar

The ground surveillance radar section can be positioned to monitor routes into and out of the built-up area. Inside the built-up area, radars are positioned to detect movement along streets, alleys, and other open areas, especially at night and during other periods of limited visibility.

Field Artillery

Artillery is employed in its normal role o f support to the maneuver units, using indirect and direct fire as feasible. Indirect artillery fire is planned to isolate objectives, prevent reinforcement and resupply, neutralize known and suspected command and observation posts, and suppress enemy defenders. Large-caliber artillery rounds, shot by direct fire, are good for destroying targets in buildings. If available, self-propelled 155mm and 8 inch howitzers can use direct fire to destroy or neutralize bunkers, heavy fortifications, or enemy positions in reinforced concrete buildings. Artillery guns must be secured by infantry in the same way as tanks.

Engineers

Engineers may be attached to forward companies so that they can give them immediate support. Engineers prepare and use explosives to breach walls and obstacles, find and help to remove mines, and clear barricades and rubble to ease movement. Combat engineer vehicles can be used to destroy buildings, fire at enemy bunkers, crater roads, or clear rubble.

Air Defense Artillery

Positioning of Chaparral and Vulcan weapons in urban terrain will often be limited to more open areas such as parks, fields, and rail yards due to masking. Towed Vulcan and Chaparral (separated from its prime mover) may be emplaced by helicopter on rooftops in dense urban areas to provide protection against air attacks from all directions. This should be accomplished only when justified by the expected length of occupation of the area and the enemy air threat.

MANPADS (Redeye/Stinger section) provide protection for battalions as in any other operation. When employed within the built-up area, rooftops normally offer the best firing position. Heavy machineguns emplaced on rooftops provide additional air defense.

Army Aviation

When assault helicopters can be used in an attack, units can be inserted on rooftops and then clear down through buildings. Isolation units can be positioned quickly and, during the clearance phase, reinforcements can be rapidly shifted using cover of previously cleared buildings. Parking lots, playgrounds, and parks may also be used as landing zones.

Tactical Air Support

Tactical air reconnaissance missions can provide detailed intelligence on enemy dispositions and capabilities. Air photos are very useful, especially if recent maps are not available. Close air support can provide the ground commander with selective and discriminating fire support. In addition to general purpose bombs, cluster bomb units, rockets, and guns, the Air Force has several guided bombs and missiles especially suited for engaging hard point targets. An airborne FAC will normally control strike aircraft. He has the advantage of being able to acquire targets more easily than could a ground FAC, ground commander, or artillery FO.

Communications

The communication plan should provide for use of wire and radio down to platoon level. Installation of wire lines in sewer systems, subway tunnels, or within intact buildings, instead of along streets, helps to protect them from shellfire and tracked vehicles. Since radio communication may be greatly restricted by the surrounding buildings and wire lines may frequently be broken by falling buildings, shellfire, or other causes, units may have to resort to using foot messengers. Select messenger routes carefully to avoid pockets of enemy resistance and snipers. Since tank units depend heavily on radio communication, special measures are required to maintain communication within them and between separated elements of the combined arms formation. Radio communication can be enhanced by operating sets from the highest possible locations (rooftops or upper stories) and by the relaying of messages by other stations, including radio relay by Army aircraft. Rooftops and upper stories also provide opportunity for use of visual signals, pyrotechnics, smoke, and marking panels to indicate the need for fire, the shifting and lifting of fires, and/or to announce the seizure of a building or group of buildings. Armored personnel carriers may be used to provide mobile, protected communication centers as another measure to overcome the problems of communicating by FM line of sight radios in a built-up area. The prompt seizure of the city's telephone exchange with as little damage as possible cannot be overemphasized.

Combat Service Support

As large expenditures of ammunition are common when attacking in an urban area, forward resupply points are set up to help retain momentum. Commanders should plan for early resupply of explosives, grenades, flame fuel, and small-arms and tank ammunition. Mobile distribution points may be set up down to company level. Armored personnel carriers and handcarrying parties may be used to resupply the forward units. Resupply by helicopters (prepackaged slingloads) may be feasible.

The battalion should arrange for special equipment, such as flamethrowers and toggle ropes with grappling hooks. Having such equipment on hand early will allow its use in rehearsals.

The evacuation of wounded from rooftops and upper stories of buildings may require additional litter bearers, or the use of special evacuation equipment. Rubble may keep ambulances out of some areas. Plans should provide for the marking of buildings which contain wounded troops. Where possible, provisions should be made to evacuate the wounded by helicopter from the tops of buildings.

Many of these considerations will be covered in unit SOP's.

An extract of FM 90-10-1 contains a further discussion of combat support in offensive operations on urbanized terrain. Read these pages now before proceeding to Practical Exercise 4.

EXERCISE 5: DETERMINING TACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR AN ATTACK ON URBANIZED TERRAIN AT BATTALION TASK FORCE LEVEL AND COMPLETING PARAGRAPH 3 OF A BATTALION OPORD

Introduction

While a decision to attack a major urban area generally rests at a level higher than battalion, commanders at all levels must be prepared to fight in such areas. A commander may attack an urban area:

To secure and control critical features (bridges, road nets, etc.)
To return the area to friendly control for political reasons
To contain an enemy force
Because it cannot be bypassed.

Urban attacks are avoided when:

Seizure of the area is not required to support future operations and bypassing is tactically feasible
Sufficient force is not available to seize and clear the area
The area has been declared an "open city" to prevent civilian casualties or preserve cultural or historical sites.

Differences Between Urban and Open Terrain

Key Terrain. Key terrain is an area whose seizure or control affords a marked advantage to the occupying or controlling force. The major difference between urban key terrain and open key terrain is the number of features to be examined and considered. A built-up area can be said to be a compressed battlefield. On open terrain, there are relatively few terrain features to consider. In a built-up area, there are many that are not present on open terrain; for example, underground systems, communication systems, transportation networks, etc. A possible list of differences includes:

The number of features to consider
A preponderance of man-made features such as multi-storied buildings
Man-made key features are vulnerable to total destruction
Underground systems may be present and may be considered key terrain
Wide streets may be considered key terrain i f there is a general lack of avenues of approach that allow for massing of combat power.

Observation and Fields of Fire. Observation is the ability of a force to exercise surveillance over a given area. The term "fire" encompasses the influence of the terrain on both direct and indirect fire weapons. A possible list of differences includes:

Generally, observation will be more restricted than on open terrain
Only a few points in a built-up area will allow observation over a wide area
Man-made observation points are highly vulnerable to total destruction
Generally, fires will be limited in range by structures
Indirect fires are influenced by high buildings that create a demand for high-angle fires, thus reducing effective ranges
Obscuration is a greater problem than on open terrain due to structures increasing the effectiveness of smoke (preventing spread).

Cover and Concealment. Cover is protection from the effects of fires; concealment is protection from observation. Possible differences between cover and concealment in open and urban terrain are:

Both cover and concealment are more readily available in urban terrain
Built-up areas offer "instant cover,' whereas open terrain requires more searching and, in most cases, digging
Concealment is more likely to defeat enemy detection devices such as infrared sensors and radar

Obstacles. An obstacle is any natural or artificial terrain feature that stops, impedes, or diverts military movement. A few possible obstacle differences in open and urban terrain are:

A built-up area is itself an obstacle that impedes military movement
Streets and alleys force the attacker to canalize while preventing him from bringing maximum combat power to bear
Obstacles within a built-up area, such as drainage ditches, are less likely to be identified in the analysis of the area of operations than obstacles on open terrain that are more likely to be apparent from a map reconnaissance.

Avenues of Approach. An avenue of approach is a route for a force of a particular size to reach an objective. To be considered an avenue of approach, a route must provide enough width for the deployment of the force for which it is being considered. Possible differences in open and urban terrain include:

Streets, street patterns, structures, and underground systems determine avenues of approach in urban areas, whereas natural terrain determines avenues on open terrain
Avenues in urban areas are more likely to change radically in direction than on open terrain
Avenues in urban areas are difficult to define for large units since they would require numerous streets in order to fully deploy
It is difficult to find a single avenue of approach in urban areas for a unit larger than a company.

Advantages to the Attacker

While advancing upon the urban area, the attacker has the advantage of maneuver. After isolating the urban area the attacker can then decide whether to continue the attack or contain the defender and force him to capitulate.

The attacker may select the point of entry into the urban area. The attack may be conducted from any direction, and at the time of the attacker's choosing.

Examples of common offensive operations in urban areas at battalion task force level have been extracted from FM 90-10-1. Read these pages now before proceeding to Practical Exercise 5.