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FM 90-10

 

URBANIZATION

Urbanization is a complex, multifaceted process influenced by many factors including a nation's cultural development, its economic resources, and its industrial capacity. Although its form varies from region to region, urbanization is characterized by a general pattern of changes in land usage and the spread of manmade features across natural terrain.

 

Tactical terrain analysis has traditionally considered some elements of the urban environment such as the allocation of land to agriculture or forestry and the distribution of railway or road networks. However, the focus has been on natural terrain elements. In Europe and other urbanized areas of the world, increased awareness of the effects of manmade features on the overall tactical scheme is necessary. How urban terrain elements impact on operations is an important consideration in determining our tactical options.

For the small-unit tactical commander, the physical layout of a buildup area and structural characteristics of its buildings are critical planning considerations. Appendix A provides a detailed discussion of these factors and the combat characteristics of various types of built-up areas for offensive and defensive operations. For commanders at battalion level and above, the size of a built-up area, the support network of lines of communication, and the urban pattern formed by a complex of built-up areas assume added importance.

BUILT-UP AREAS

The following discussion uses the central European setting to describe these aspects of urbanization. With minor modifications, it is applicable to other urban areas throughout the world.

A built-up area is a concentration of structures, facilities, and population which form the economic and cultural focus for the surrounding area. There are four categories:

Large Cities
(Population Greater than 100,000.)

Most typical of the urbanization process is the increasing number of large and still-growing large cities. In Europe, other than the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), there are approximately 375 cities with populations in excess of 100,000. The Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) has 49 cities with populations exceeding 100,000 and 4 cities of over 1 million. Large cities frequently form the core of a larger, densely populated urban complex consisting of the city, its suburban areas, and small towns. Such complexes have the appearance of a single, large, and continuous city containing millions of people and occupying vast areas of land. The illustration on the following page depicts major complexes that exist in FRG. The Rhine-Ruhr complex stretches west to Aachen and south to Bonn and contains over 12.5 million people concentrated in 13,000 square kilometers. The Rhine-Main complex includes Frankfurt, Darmstadt, Mainz, Mannheim, and Karlsruhe; it contains over 5 million people in 7,000 square kilometers. To the southeast, greater Stuttgart (2 million people in 3,000 square kilometers) will soon merge with Rhine-Main. These urban centers encompass 10 percent of FRGs total land area and approximately one-half of its total population.

Towns and Small Cities
(3,000-- 100,000.)

Within the FRG there are approximately 235 small cities/towns with populations from 3,000-100,000. In many cases these areas are located along major lines of communications and situated in river valleys. Similar to larger cities, these areas are continuing to expand and will eventually form new conurbations or merge with existing ones.

Villages. (Less than 3,000.)

In the FRG there are approximately 21,000 built-up areas with populations of less than 3,000. In most cases these villages are agriculturally oriented and are usually distributed among the more open cultivated areas of Germany. In the average brigade sector in the FRG there are 25 of these villages. The average distance between them is only 3.5 kilometers.

Strip Areas

These built-up areas generally form connecting links between villages and towns. They are also found along lines of communications leading to larger complexes. Although the size and population of strip areas vary, they normally assume a long thin linear pattern.

BUILDING AND STREET PATTERNS

The physical layout of built-up areas is of tactical significance. Five basic building and street patterns which impact on fire support and maneuver schemes recur throughout western Europe. Appendix A provides a detailed analysis of the tactical implications of each pattern. For ease of reference, they have been identified by form and assigned a letter designation. The following table briefly summarizes the general characteristics of each pattern.

 

 

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FM 90-10-1

 

CHARACTERISTICS OF URBAN OFFENSIVE OPERATIONS

Offensive operations in urban areas are based on offensive doctrine, modified to fit the peculiarities of the area. At battalion level, the offense will take the form of either a hasty or a deliberate attack.

A Hasty Attack is conducted when retaining momentum is crucial. Hasty attacks are feasible when the enemy has not fortified his positions, permitting the attacking force to overwhelm the defense without protracted combat.

A Deliberate Attack is conducted when avoiding risks is crucial. Deliberate attacks are required when enemy positions are well prepared, when the urban area is large or severely congested, or when surprise has been lost. The attack is characterized by thorough reconnaissance, planning, and coordination.

THE HASTY ATTACK

Three tasks are common to a hasty attack. They are:

• Find a weak point or gap in enemy defenses.
• Fix forward enemy elements.
• Quickly move through or around the weak point or gap.

Those tasks cannot always he executed in the same order. Commanders must exploit opportunities as they appear. For example, leading units of a battalion may be engaged with forward enemy elements when it becomes apparent that a weak point exists in the defensive position. In another case, a reconnaissance force may discover a gap and then be ordered to seize the terrain controlling the gap to prevent enemy reinforcement. In any case, speed is essential. If momentum is lost, the hasty attack will fail.

Because an urban area is itself an obstacle, a hasty attack in such an area is conducted somewhat differently than in open terrain. Incomplete intelligence and the concealment available in an urban area may require the maneuver unit to move through, rather than around, the friendly unit fixing the enemy in place. Control and coordination become most important to reduce congestion at the edge of the urban area.

Follow-up "on order" missions or fragmentary orders may be given to a force making a hasty attack so it can react to a contingency once its objective is secured.

THE DELIBERATE ATTACK

There are normally three steps in the deliberate attack of an urban area. They are:

• Isolate the area (objective).
• Secure a foothold.
• Clear the area.

Isolating the area involves seizing terrain that dominates the area so that the enemy cannot supply or reinforce its defenders. This step may be taken at the same time as the foothold and clearance steps. After isolating the area, there should be no pause before the following steps.

Securing a Foothold involves seizing an intermediate objective that provides cover from enemy fire and a place for attacking troops to enter the urban area. A foothold is normally one to two city blocks and is an intermediate objective of a company. As the company attacks to secure the foothold, it should be supported by suppressive fire and smoke.

The attacking commander considers the factors of mission, enemy, terrain and weather, and troops and time available (METT) in determining to what extent the built-up area must be cleared. The commander may decide to clear only those parts necessary for the success of his mission if:

• An objective must be seized quickly.
• Enemy resistance is light or fragmented.
• The buildings in the area are of light construction with large open areas between them. In that case, he would clear only those buildings along the approach to his objective, or only those buildings necessary for security.

On the other hand, a unit may have a mission to systematically clear an area of all enemy, or it may assume that mission in the face of strong, organized resistance or in areas having strong buildings close together. In that case, one or two companies may attack on a narrow front against the enemy's weakest sector. Those companies move slowly through the area, clearing systematically from room to room and building to building. The other company supports the clearing units and is prepared to assume their mission.

 

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OBJECTIVES

When attacking to seize a foothold, the battalion normally assigns a forward company the first block of buildings as its first objective. When an objective extends to a street, only the near side of the street is included. The companies' final objectives may be buildings at the far edge of the urban area or key terrain on the far side. Key buildings or groups of buildings also may be assigned as intermediate objectives. Buildings along the route of attack should be identified by numbers to simplify assigning objectives and reporting.

When the unit is involved in clearing operations bypassing of buildings increases the risk of attack from the rear or flank. Thus, the clearing unit must enter, search, and clear each building. A single building may be an objective for a rifle squad or, if the building is large, for a rifle platoon or even a company.

When a rapid advance has been ordered or when conducting a hasty attack, a battalion may be directed not to clear its entire zone.

PHASELINES

As important control measures, phaselines can be used to report progress or to control the advance of attacking units. Principal streets, rivers, and railroad lines are suitable phaselines. Phaselines should be on the near side of the street or open area. In systematic clearing, a unit may have the mission to clear its zone up to a phaseline. In that case, the unit commander would pick his own objectives when assigning missions to his units.

BOUNDARIES/ZONE OF ATTACK

Battalion and company boundaries are usually set within blocks so that a street is included in a company zone. Boundaries must be placed to insure that both sides of a street are included in the zone of one unit.

CHECKPOINTS AND CONTACT POINTS

These are planned at street corners, buildings, railway crossings, bridges, or any other easily identifiable features. Check-points aid in reporting locations and controlling movement. Contact points are used to designate specific points where units make physical contact.

ATTACK POSITION

This position may be occupied by forward units to make last-minute preparation and coordination. When feasible, troops enter and leave the attack position when visibility is poor to avoid being seen by the enemy.

FRONTAGES

A unit's assigned frontage for the attack of an urban area will depend on the size of buildings and the resistance anticipated. A company normally attacks on a one- to two-block front, and a battalion on a two- to four-block front, based on city blocks averaging 175 meters in width.

TIME OF ATTACK

The first phase of an attack should be conducted when visibility is poor, especially when open areas must be crossed. Troops should exploit poor visibility to cross open areas, to gain access to rooftops, to infiltrate enemy areas, and to gain a foothold. If the attack must be made when visibility is good, smoke should be used to conceal movement.

THE FORMATION

In an attack, the formation used depends on the width and depth of the zone to be cleared, the character of the area, enemy resistance, and the formation adopted by the next higher command. Normally, a battalion will have two companies forward.

THE RESERVE

The reserve should be mobile and prepared for commitment. The cover in urban areas allows it to keep close to the forward units.

Battalion reserves will normally follow one to two blocks to the rear of the lead company. If a company reserve is available, it will normally follow within the same block so that it can immediately influence the attack.

A unit with a "reserve" mission may have one or more of the following tasks:

• Attacking from another direction.
• Exploiting an enemy weakness or friendly success.
• Clearing bypassed enemy positions.
• Securing the rear or a flank.
• Maintaining contact with adjacent units.
• Reinforcing a forward unit by fire.

 

 

 

CONDUCT OF THE HASTY ATTACK

 

FINDING AN ENEMY WEAK POINT

In a movement to contact near an urban area, a battalion commander may have his lead unit reconnoiter to find a weak point. The lead unit should reconnoiter aggressively and, on finding a weak point, either make contact and fix the enemy or seize the area to secure it for the following units. Only those buildings necessary to provide security for the attack are cleared.

MOVEMENT THROUGH THE WEAK POINT

Once the lead unit is engaged, the battalion commander will order the rest of his unit to pass through. The lead unit must maintain contact with the enemy and help the rest of the battalion pass through. Depending on the degree of resistance, the battalion commander may order the lead unit to attack, or order it to fix the enemy while another unit leads the rest of the battalion through the weak point. As each unit enters the urban area, it is responsible for its own security, but clears only those parts of the area essential for its maneuver. Units may be assigned objectives within the area that must be seized quickly.

If a key feature is captured, it should be secured quickly. If an opportunity arises to continue the attack, clearing buildings will usually be left for following units.

CONDUCT OF THE DELIBERATE ATTACK

In a deliberate attack on an urban area, the area is first isolated, then a foothold is seized, and finally the area is cleared.

ISOLATING AN URBAN AREA

Isolation is achieved by seizing dominant terrain from which the attackers can control approaches into and out of the urban area. Tank-heavy elements supported by ATGMs, mortars, and artillery are employed using the dominant terrain to isolate the built-up area from reinforcement and resupply.

USE ARTILLERY AND MORTAR FIRE	SEIZING A FOOTHOLD When the area has been isolated, the attacker next seizes a foothold, preferably from an unexpected direction and when visibility is poor. The attacker uses smoke and direct and indirect fire weapons to suppress the defender's ground observation and direct fire on the approaches into the urban area. The lead unit advances to the edge of the urban area and seizes structures from which it can continue the attack. Artillery and mortar fire is used to cover the advance of the attacking units and to suppress enemy weapons. Supporting weapons may be used to blow gaps through barbed-wire obstacles. Smoke may be used to screen friendly troop movement. The attacking unit may use the foothold as a place to reorganize and displace weapons to positions where they can support the continuation of the attack. Supporting weapons may also have to help protect the foothold area from counterattack.
	CLEARING OF THE URBAN AREA After isolation and seizure of a foothold, the attacking force may clear the urban area with a systematic block-by-block, house-to-house reduction, or by moving quickly through the town while clearing specified critical areas and key buildings. The number of buildings to be cleared depends on the mission, the size of the town, the construction and arrangement of the buildings, the enemy disposition and strength, and the size and composition of the attacking force.
DIVIDE AREA INTO COMPANY ZONES	When the urban area is large and heavily fortified or when the mission requires complete clearing out of enemy troops, the area should he divided into company zones of attack. This can result in heavy fighting as each zone is systematically searched and cleared--house by house, block by block. Each company must clear its zone completely, leaving no enemy in its rear. This helps protect them from surprise attacks on their rear, secure their lines of communications, and keep support and reserve units from becoming involved in unexpected enemy action. When the urban area is small or lightly defended, when the plan calls for a rapid advance into the area to seize a critical feature, or when a part of the area must be isolated, reserves and following units may be ordered to clear sections of the area which have been bypassed or only hastily cleared by the leading units. Close coordination between forward and following units is essential to prevent combat between friendly elements. As each forward unit seizes an objective, it consolidates and reorganizes before continuing toward its next objective.

 

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COMMON OFFENSIVE OPERATIONS IN URBAN AREAS

BATTALION LEVEL

Although the following examples describe the actions of a mechanized infantry battalion task force, all of these actions could be modified for use by any type of infantry unit.

Deliberate attack. Because the companies or company teams may become isolated during the operation, some support elements which are normally only in support are attached to them. As shown below, Team B and Company C, the forward units which will clear the village, each has a squad of engineers attached. The tanks will be used to hit hardened targets protected by buildings or rubble. They may also he used to blow an entry point in buildings when the normal entrances are covered by enemy fire. The CEV will be brought forward when necessary for similar tasks against tough buildings and to clear rubble.

The objective area sits astride a major road and must be seized so that friendly forces can use the road to continue the attack. It is dominated by high ground on either side. It, and the surrounding terrain, is defended by enemy motorized rifle troops in platoon strongpoints.

The task force (TF) is organized as shown.

The TF commander plans to conduct a deliberate attack of the village. The steps in the attack will include:

• isolating the village,
• seizing a foothold, and
• clearing the buildings.

To isolate the village the TF commander orders Team A and Team CLAW to seize the high ground on either side of the village (Step 1).

The scout platoon helps isolate the village by screening between the two forward teams.

With team B and the antitank (AT) platoon (-) overwatching, Company C attacks to seize the foothold (Step 2). The TF mortars and supporting artillery fire smoke to conceal Company C's approach.

When they have secured the foothold, Team B moves forward to join Company C in the foothold. The AT platoon (-) continues to overwatch.

The village is divided into two company zones. Each company clears its designated zone, building by building (Step 3).

This is just one typical mission that a battalion could be required to accomplish. Some other missions are the following:

Hasty attack against an outpost in an urban area. A TF in a movement to contact may encounter an outpost in a small group of buildings. This situation does not call for a deliberate attack on the built-up area, but the outpost should be eliminated so that the following units may move along the route.

The TF commander must maintain the momentum of his TF and commit only enough combat power to neutralize the out-post. He orders the lead team (Team CLAW) on the west axis to bypass the village and continue moving. Likewise, Team A on the other axis continues its movement. Team B, the trailing team on the west axis, is ordered to clear the village and then catch up with the rest of the TF.

The team ordered to clear the outpost should have priority of fire. It may have additional TOWs attached from the AT platoon to help isolate and neutralize the outpost.

The seizure of a key objective. Many urban areas are built around key features, such as road junctions or bridges. In this example, the key feature is a bridge over a river. A normal deliberate attack would not succeed here because it would give the enemy enough time to destroy the bridge. Instead, the commander must plan a rapid advance through the urban area, leaving the task of clearing to following units.

This type of operation has the highest chance of success when the enemy has not had time to set up a well-established defense. Because of the importance of the objective, the prime considerations are to get through the area fast, before the enemy can react, and to seize the objective while it is still intact.

The TF should attempt to avoid contact with the enemy. If enemy resistance is encountered, it should be bypassed. Time-combat must be avoided. The TF must get to the bridge any way possible.

In this case, the TF commander organizes his TF as for movement on two axes. This allows him more flexibility to react to enemy contact. The lead unit on each axis reconnoiters as it moves. Lead units must find enemy positions, fix them by fire, and quickly bypass them.

The units move mounted toward the urban area. on reaching the edge of the urban area, troops stay mounted until they meet enemy resistance. Enemy contact, if made, should not slow the advance. Platoons are dropped off as necessary to take up blocking positions and secure the TF advance.

Once the objective is seized, the TF establishes a perimeter defense. The companies clear buildings and expand the size of the perimeter until it is large enough to secure the bridge against enemy action. Attached engineers check the bridge and clear it of any explosives.

 

DEFENSES MAY BE WEAK	Infiltration into the outskirts of town. This example describes the actions of an infantry battalion with engineers attached. With some modification, it could also apply to a dismounted mechanized infantry battalion. The outskirts of a town may not be strongly defended. Its defenders may have only a series of antitank positions, security elements on the principal approach, or positions blocking the approaches to key features in the town. The strongpoints and reserves are deeper in the city. It may he possible for a battalion to seize a part of the town hy infiltrating platoons and companies between those enemy positions on the outskirts. Moving by stealth on secondary streets, using the cover and concealment of hack alleys and buildings, the battalion may be able to seize key street junctions or terrain features, isolate enemy positions, and help following units pass into the urban area.
	CLEARING OF THE URBAN AREA After isolation and seizure of a foothold, the attacking force may clear the urban area with a systematic block-by-block, house-to-house reduction, or by moving quickly through the town while clearing specified critical areas and key buildings. The number of buildings to be cleared depends on the mission, the size of the town, the construction and arrangement of the buildings, the enemy disposition and strength, and the size and composition of the attacking force.
POOR VISIBILITY AIDS INFILTRATION	Such an infiltration should he done when visibility is poor. It will have a better chance of success if there are no civilians in the area. The battalion is best organized into two infiltration companies with engineers attached to each and a reserve company with engineers attached. Each company should have an infiltration lane from 300 to 800 meters wide. The infiltrating companies advance on foot, with stealth, using available cover and concealment. Mortar and artillery fire can be used to divert the enemy's attention and cover the sound of infiltrating troops. The TOWs take up positions from which they can fire on any enemy tanks or armored personnel carriers. The scouts screen the battalion's more vulnerable flank. As the companies move into the built-up area, they secure their own flanks. Security elements may be dropped off along the route to warn of an attack on a flank. Engineers assist in breaching or bypassing minefields or obstacles encountered. Enemy positions are avoided, but reported. The infiltrating companies proceed until they reach their objective. At that time, they consolidate and reorganize, contact each other, and arrange for mutual support. They patrol to their front and to the flanks and establish contact with each other. The company commander may establish a limit of advance to reduce chances of enemy contact or to insure safety from friendly forces. If the infiltration places the enemy in an untenable position and he has to withdraw, the rest of the battalion is brought forward for the next phase of the operation. If the enemy does not withdraw, the battalion will have to clear him out before the next phase of the operation.

 

Securing a route in a built-up area. A mechanized infantry battalion may have to clear buildings along a route through a city to secure the route.

How quickly the battalion can clear the buildings depends on the enemy resistance and the size and number of buildings. In the outlying area, the forward units proceed by bounds from road junction to road junction. Other platoons provide flank security by moving down parallel streets and by probing to the flanks.

Depending on the required speed and the enemy situation, the infantry may either move mounted or dismounted. The platoons move down the widest streets, avoiding the narrow streets. Each squad overwatches the squad to its front, keeping watch on the opposite side of the street. The overwatching carrier teams are secured by dismounted troops. Except for those troops, the rest of the infantry may stay mounted, until required to dismount by enemy fire or to attack an enemy-held building.

When contact with the enemy is made, the tanks support as usual. Supporting fire fixes and isolates enemy positions. The dismounted troops maneuver to attack those positions.

Phaselines can be used to control the rate of the companies' advance and other action. For example, at each phaseline, the forward companies might reestablish contact, reorganize as necessary, and then continue the clearing action.

 

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CHAPTER 5

Combat Support
and
Combat Service Support

 

 

GENERAL Urban combat places heavy demands on combat support and combat service support. Chapter 3, Offensive Operations, and Chapter 4, Defensive Operations, discuss the employment considerations of combat support and combat service support elements in the offense and defense; however, a more detailed discussion is required to explain the complexities of this support in the urban environment.

COMBAT SUPPORT Combat support is fire support and other assistance provided to combat elements. It normally includes artillery, air defense, aviation (less air cavalry), engineers, military police, communications, and electronic warfare.

CONTENTS GENERAL COMBAT SUPPORT COMBAT SERVICE SUPPORT

FIELD ARTILLERY

A battalion or battalion task force is normally supported by a field artillery battalion in direct support (DS) to the brigade. In some situations, a battery will be placed in DS of a battalion task force. Supporting artillery may be used in either a direct or an indirect fire role. When planning for fire support in an urban area, the battalion commander, in coordination with the fire support officer (FSO), considers the following:

• Target acquisition will be more difficult because of the increased cover and concealment afforded by the terrain.
• Indirect fires must be tightly controlled, since urban fighting results in opposing forces fighting in close combat.
• The effects of munitions will be limited by buildings.
• Fire restrictions (such as a fire area or a no-fire area) may be imposed to protect civilians and critical installations.
• Centralized control of field artillery at the DS battalion level makes it easier to mass organic and reinforcing field artillery. Fires that are massed and surprise the enemy, optimize the effects of artillery.
• The 155-mm and 8-inch self-propelled howitzers are effective in neutralizing concrete targets with direct fire. Concrete-piercing 155-mm and 8-inch rounds will penetrate 36 inches and 56 inches, respectively, of concrete at ranges of up to 2,200 meters. The 8-inch self-propelled howitzer must be closely protected when used in a direct fire mode because it has no armor protection for its crew.
• Restriction may be placed on artillery use in order to reduce rubbling on avenues of movement that may be used by friendly forces.

The use of airburst fires is an effective means of clearing snipers from rooftops. High-explosive shells with delay fuzes may be effective against enemy troops in the upper floors of buildings, but because of the overhead cover provided by the building, such shells will have little impact on enemy in the lower floors.

The planning and use of field artillery in offensive and defensive operations is also addressed in chapters 3 and 4.

MORTARS

Mortars are well suited for urban combat because of their characteristic high trajectory. The protection the enemy gets from buildings, however, reduces the effectiveness of mortar rounds, especially the 81-mm rounds. The mortars can fire high explosive (HE), white phosphorus (WP), or illumination. The infantry company's mortars offer the most responsive fire.

Mortars should be positioned on firm ground in areas where their fires are not masked by adjacent buildings. If the mortars are ground mounted and only concrete areas are available, they can be fired from a sandbagged emplacement.

Like other combat elements in urban terrain, mortars may have to provide their own security, if it is not provided by the rifle platoons or headquarters elements.

NAVAL GUNFIRE

When a unit is operating near a coastline with gunfire support ships within range, naval gunfire can provide effective fire support. If naval gunfire is used, a shore fire control party (SFCP) of Marine personnel may be attached to the battalion. An FSCP has one liaison team and one spotting team, which provide ship-to-shore communications. The liaison team works in the fire support coordination center, while the spotting team is attached to one of the committed companies.

TACTICAL AIR

Close air support. A battalion may be supported by Air Force, Navy, Marine, or allied fighters and attack aircraft while fighting in urban terrain. The employment of close air support (CAS) depends on the following considerations:

Shock and Concussion

Heavy air bombardment provides great tactical advantages to an attacker. The shock and concussion of the bombardment reduces the efficiency of defending troops and destroys defensive positions.

Rubble and Debris

The rubble and debris resulting from air attacks may increase the defender's cover while creating significant obstacles to the movement of attacking forces.

Proximity of Friendly Troops

The proximity of opposing forces to friendly troops may require the use of precision-guided munitions, and can require the temporary disengagement of friendly forces in contact.

Indigenous Civilians or Key Facilities

The use of air weapons may be restricted by the presence of civilians or the requirement to preserve key facilities within a city.

Limited Ground Observation

Limited ground observation may require the use of airborne forward air controllers (FAC).

Offensiue operations. CAS may be employed during offensive operations to--

• support the isolation of the city by interdicting entry and exit routes;
• support attacking units by reducing enemy strongpoints with precision-guided munitions; and
• conduct tactical air reconnaissance and provide detailed intelligence of enemy dispositions, equipment, and strengths.

AIR DEFENSE

Basic air defense doctrine will not change when operating in urbanized terrain. The fundamental principles of mix, mass, mobility, and integration are all applicable to the employment of air defense assets.

The ground commander must consider the following when developing his air defense plan:

• Enemy air targets such as principal lines of communications, road and rail networks, and bridges are often found in and around urban areas.
• It may be difficult to find and occupy good firing positions for long-range air defense missile systems in the urban environment, and thus the number of weapons the commander can employ may be limited.
• Movement between positions is normally restricted in urban areas.
• Long-range systems can provide air defense cover from positions on or outside of the edge of the city.
• Radar masking and degraded communications will reduce air defense warning time for all units. Air defense control measures must be adjusted to permit responsive air defense within this reduced warning environment.

Chaparral and Vulcan. Positioning of Chaparral and Vulcan weapons in urban terrain will often be limited to more open areas without masking, such as parks, field, and rail yards.

Towed Chaparral and Vulcan (separated from their prime movers) may be emplaced by helicopter on rooftops in dense urban areas to provide protection against air attacks from all directions. This should be accomplished only when justified by the expected length of occupation of the area and the enemy air threat.

Redeye. The Redeye section provides protection for battalions as in any other operation. When employed within the built-up area, rooftops normally offer the best firing positions.

Machineguns. Heavy machineguns emplaced on rooftops can also provide additional air defense.

ARMY AVIATION

Army aviation support of urban operations includes attack helicopters, and utility helicopters for airmobile operations, command and control, relocation of combat or combat support units, resupply operations, observation, reconnaissance, operation of sensory devices, and radio retransmission. When using Army aviation, the commander considers the enemy air situation, enemy air defenses, terrain in or adjacent to the city, and the availability of Army or Air Force suppression means.

Offensive missions. Missions for Army aviation in support of urban offensive operations include:

• Airmobile operations to secure key terrain adjacent to the urban area, and to secure key objectives when the area is lightly defended or when enemy fires have been suppressed.
• Employment of attack helicopters with aerial weapons to support the commander's scheme of maneuver in, or adjacent to, the urban area.
• Aerial resupply and medical evacuation.
• Command and control by providing rapid displacement of command elements to critical areas, and in some circumstances providing an airborne command platform.
• Aerial retransmission.
• Intelligence-gathering operations.

USE OF HELICOPTERS

It can be advantageous to use helicopters to conduct air assaults onto rooftops in urban combat. Careful analysis of the rooftops must be made prior to the start of the mission. In many of the more modern cities, office buildings often have helipads on their roofs which are ideal for landings. Other buildings, such as parking garages, are usually strong enough to support the weight of a helicopter. The delivery of troops onto a building can also be accomplished by rappelling from the helicopter or jumping out of the helicopter while it hovers just above the roof. When approaching rooftops, care must be taken to insure that there are no obstacles that could damage the helicopters or injure the troops, such as electrical wires, telephone poles, antennas, or enemy-emplaced mines and wire.

Small-scale assaults. There may be occasions when it is necessary to land small units onto the roof of a key building. Success in such an operation depends on minimum exposure and the suppression of all enemy positions that could fire on the helicopter. Depending on the construction of the roof, rappelling troops from the helicopter may be more advantageous than landing on the rooftop. The rappel is often more reliable and safer for the troops than a jump from a low hover. With practice, a rappel insertion can be accomplished with a minimum of exposure.

Large-scale assaults. For larger scale air assaults, rooftop landings are not practical, so open spaces within the urban area must be used. Open spaces, such as parks and parking lots, are common urban features. Several spaces large enough for helicopter operations normally can be found within 2 kilometers of a city's center.

Movement of troops and supplies. In an urban battle, heliborne troop movement may become a significant requirement. Units engaged in house-to-house fighting normally suffer more casualties than units fighting in open terrain. The casualties often must be replaced quickly with fresh troops. At the same time, roads are likely to be crowded with resupply and evacuation vehicles, and may also be blocked with craters or rubble.

Helicopters provide a responsive means to move troops by flying nap-of-the earth flight techniques down selected streets already secured and cleared of obstacles. The aircraft deliver the troops at the last covered position short of the fighting and then return without exposure to enemy direct fire. similar flight techniques can be used for aerial resupply and casualty evacuation.

Air assaults. Air assaults into enemy-held territory are more difficult. One technique is to fly low down a broad street or commercial ribbon, with attack helicopters and door gunners from utility helicopters suppressing buildings on either side of the street. Artillery fires can be scheduled to impact just prior to the helicopters' fly-by. Feints and demonstrations in the form of false insertions can confuse the enemy as to the real assault landings.

ENGINEERS

During urban fighting, divisional engineers should be attached to the dispersed maneuver elements; for example, one engineer company to each committed brigade, one platoon to each battalion or battalion task force, and a squad to each company or company team. Most engineer manual-labor tasks, however, will have to be completed by infantry units, with reinforcing engineer heavy-equipment support and technical supervision.

Offensive missions. Engineers may perform the following missions during offensive operations:

• Conduct a technical reconnaissance to determine the location and type of enemy obstacles and minefields, and to make breaching recommendations.
• Clear barricades and heavy rubble with earth-moving equipment to assist forward movement.
• Use the fires from the combat engineer vehicle (CEV), or hand-emplaced demolitions to destroy fortifications and strongpoints that cannot be reduced with the maneuver unit's organic assets.
• Use the CEV to destroy structures or clear rubble.
• Lay mines to protect flanks and rear areas.

Defensive missions. Engineers may perform the following missions during the defense of an urban area:

• Construct obstacles.

Messengers and visual signals. Messengers and visual signals can also be used in built-up areas. Messengers must plan routes that avoid pockets of resistance. Visual signals must be planned in such a way that they can be seen from the buildings. Sound. Sound signals are normally not effective in urban areas because there is too much other noise. Urban systems. If existing civil or military communications facilities can be captured intact, they can also be used by the infantry battalion. A civilian phone system, for instance, can provide a reliable, secure means of communication if codes and authentication tables are used. Other civilian media can also be used to broadcast messages to the public.

COMMUNICATIONS Buildings reduce the range of FM radios. To overcome this difficulty, battalions can set up retransmission stations or radio relays. These are most effective when placed in high areas. Antennas should be camouflaged by putting them near steeples or water towers. Remoting antennas away from radios or placing them on rooftops is another way to solve the range problem. Wire. Wire is a more secure and effective means of communications in built-up areas. Wires should be laid overhead on existing poles or underground to prevent vehicles from cutting them.

 

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