References:
A. SOVIET SPACE PROGRAMS: 1976-80, (WITH SUPPLEMENTARY DATA THROUGH 1983) MANNED SPACE PROGRAMS AND SPACE LIFE SCIENCES PREPARED AT THE REQUEST OF HON. BOB PACKWOOD, Chairman, COMMITTEE ON COMMERCE, SCIENCE, AND TRANSPORTATION UNITED STATES SENATE, Part 2, OCTOBER 1984, Printed for the use of the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation, U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON, D. C., 1984
12. Calvin, M. and 0. G. Gazenko (eds.). Foundations of Space Biology and Medicine, v. 1. Outer Space as a Habitat. NASA, 1975. 442 p.
13. Ibid., v. II., Book 1. Ecological and Physiological Bases of Space Biology and Medicine.
14. Ibid., v. II., Book 2.
16. U.S. Congress. Senate. Committee on Aeronautical and Space Sciences. Soviet Space Programs, 1962-65 (Ch. Ill (V) Soviet Man in Space Programs: Bioastronautics"). Staff Report. 98 th Cong., 2nd Sess. Dec. 30, 1966. Washington, D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office, 1966, p. 296-320.
17. bid., Soviet Space Programs, 1966-70 (Ch. Seven. Soviet Bioastronautics: Biological, Behavioral, and Medical Problems). Staff Report. 92nd Cone., 1st Sess., Dec. 9, 1971. Washington, D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office, 1981, p. 265-296.
18. bid., Soviet Space Programs, 1971-75 (Ch. Four. The Soviet Space Life Sciences). Staff Report. 94th Cong., 2nd Sess., Aug. 30, 1976. Washington, D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office, 1976, p.257-344.
19.U.S. Congress. House. Committee on Science and Technology. Subcommittee on Space Science and Applications. United States Civilian Space Programs, 1958-78 (Ch. Eight, Space Life Sciences). Report. 97th Cong., 1st Sess. Washington, D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office, 1981, p.641-714.
Soviet Space Life Sciences Foundation
INTRODUCTION
The Soviet Union was the first country to launch a live organism into an orbit around the Earth. This historical event, November 3, 1957, the flight of Sputnik 2 containing the dog, Layka, ushered in a new era of biomedical research related to manned spaceflight. For 1 week, the dog orbited around the Earth in a state of weightlessness and was exposed to the then relatively unknown hazards of space. After 1 week, an automatic device poisoned the dog and the experiment was terminated. This was the first hint that a
higher vertebrate, fairly similar to man physiologically, could not only withstand the rigors of the rocket launch, but could also tolerate for at least 1 week a variety of spaceflight factors.
Other biological experiments were to follow (tables 3 and 4 of chapter 3) finally culminating in the historic flight of Vostok 1 on April 12, 1961, which contained the first human ever to orbit the Earth, Yuriy Alekseyevich Gagarin. As summarized in chapter three of this report, there has followed a rapid sequence of progressively larger, longer duration, and more complicated manned spaceflights (Vostok 2-6; Voskhod 1 and 2; Soyuz 1, and 3-T-3 and Salyut 1-7) and biological satellites of the Kosmos series. All of these events have been supported by a very large and comprehensive research effort in the space life sciences.
EARLY HISTORY
As emerging rocket technology in the 1950s made it possible for man to reach the edge of space, it was natural that Soviet specialists in areas such as altitude physiology and aviation medicine should turn to the design of space suits and the initial selection of
space crews. This early activity took place primarily in the Military Medical Academy named after Kirov and the Scientific Research Institute of Aviation Medicine in Moscow. (1)
Before the historical flight of Sputnik 1, the field of bioastronautics in the Soviet Union was not considered to be quite respectable. There was an unrealistic, science-fiction aura about it in addition to serious academic doubts as to whether vertebrate organisms, including man, could withstand the rigors of a weightless environment. Early Soviet experiments with animals in vertical rockets did little to command the serious attention of the Department of Biological Sciences of the U.S.S.R. Academy of Sciences. Consequently, all early research was conducted in various facilities of the Academy of Medical Sciences and the Institute of Aviation Medicine in Moscow. At the latter facility was Dr. Oleg Gazenko who pioneered early research in gravitational physiology and was later to become the leader of the entire Soviet space life sciences effort, a position he holds today. Later, the success of animal experiments in spacecraft in 1960 and early 1961 caused key individuals in the Academy of Sciences to take a second look at the new scientific discipline of bioastronautics. There followed a number of papers by Dr. N. M. Sisakyan of the Department of Biological Sciences on biological problems of spaceflight. (2, 3, 4, 5)
It was quite evident in early phases of the Soviet space life sciences effort that there was considerable competition for leadership between the prestigious Academy of Sciences and the less prestigious Academy of Medical Sciences. Perhaps it was the scientific weight of the Academy of Sciences that convinced the Soviet political leadership of that day to include it in activities theretofore dominated by the Academy of Medical Sciences and the Institute of Aviation Medicine. In early international symposia addressing the space and aviation life sciences it was obvious that a bitter battle was being waged between the two academies. For example, at one such symposium, Basic Environmental Problems of Man in Space, held in Paris in October 1962, not a single leader from the Academy of Medical Sciences was permitted to appear. By that time it was fairly clear that N. M. Sisakyan and the Academy of Sciences had won the battle for overall leadership in the space life sciences. (6)
To commemorate and consolidate this victory, Sisakyan published the first two volumes of Problems of Space Biology and a monograph on the First Manned Space Flights. These publications were printed under the auspices of the Department of Biological Sciences of the U.S.S.R. Academy of Sciences. Gradually, through the remainder of the 1960s and 1970s, the Academy of Medical Sciences and Ministry of Health were to reassert their influence in the space life sciences. Ultimately, Dr. Oleg Gazenko, now a full academician in the Academy of Sciences was to head up the Institute of Biomedical Problems under the Ministry of Health.
EARLY ORGANIZATION
In the early phases of the Soviet manned space effort (roughly 1956-64), the following facilities were identified as being involved in various facets of the space life sciences, primarily in ground-based research. (7)
ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, U.S.S.R.
Institute of Biochemistry named after Bakh, Moscow.
Institute of Atomic Energy named after Kurchatov, Moscow.
Institute of Biophysics, Moscow.
Institute of Cytology, Leningrad.
Institute of Evolutionary Physiology named after Sechenov, Leningrad.
Institute of Microbiology, Moscow.
Institute of Physiology named after Pavlov, Leningrad.
Institute of Plant Physiology named after Timiryazev, Moscow.
ACADEMY OF MEDICAL SCIENCES, U.S.S.R.
Laboratory for of Experimental Biology, Moscow.
Institute of Experimental Pathology and Therapy, Sukhumi.
Institute of Experimental Medicine, Leningrad.
Institute of Industrial Hygiene and Occupational Diseases, Moscow.
Laboratory for Experimental Physiology of Reanimation, Moscow.
Central Scientific Research Institute of Sanitation and Hygiene named after Erisman, Moscow.
Institute of Normal and Pathological Physiology, Moscow.
ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, SIBERIAN DIVISION
Institute of Cytology of Genetics, Novosibirsk. Institute of Experimental Biology and Medicine, Novosibirsk.
ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, UNION REPUBLICS
Institute of Physiology named after Bogomolets, Kiev (Ukrainian Academy of Sciences).
Institute of Physiology, Tbilisi (Georgian Academy of Sciences).
Pamir Botanical Garden (Tadzhik Academy of Sciences).
Botanical Institute (Uzbekistan Academy of Sciences).
Institute of Regional Experimental Medicine, Tashkent (Uzbekis-tan Academy of Sciences).
MINISTRY OF DEFENSE
Institute of Aviation Medicine, Moscow.
Military Medical Academy named after Kirov, Leningrad.
MINISTRY OF HEALTH
Institute of Biomedical Problems, Puschino (established in the late 1960s).
Moscow Scientific Research Institute of Experimental Surgical Equipment and Instruments, Moscow.
Central Scientific Research Institute of Health Resorts and Physical Therapy, Moscow.
Central Institute of Hematology and Blood Transfusion, Moscow.
Central Scientific Research Institute of Medical Radiology, Moscow.
All-Union Scientific Research Chemical and Pharmaceutical Institute, Moscow.
RSFSR MINISTRY OF HEALTH
Leningrad Institute of Industrial Hygiene and Occupational Diseases, Leningrad.
Leningrad Medical Institute of Sanitation and Hygiene, Leningrad.
Leningrad Scientific Research Institute for Radiation Hygiene, Leningrad.
STATE UNIVERSITIES
Moscow State University named after Lomonosov, Moscow.
Leningrad State University named after Zhdanov, Leningrad.
Ural State University named after Gorkiy, Sverdlovsk.
MUNICIPAL MEDICAL INSTITUTES
First (order of Lenin) Moscow Medical Institute, Moscow.
First Leningrad Medical Institute named after Pavlov, Leningrad.
Chelyabinsk Medical Institute, Chelyabinsk.
Kalinin Medical Institute, Kalinin.
Kubyshev Medical Institute, Kubyshev.
Turkmen Medical Institute, Ashkhabad.
Yerevan Medical Institute, Yerevan.
MISCELLANEOUS
All Union Scientific Research Institute of Antibiotics, Moscow.
All Union Scientific Research Institute of Medical Instruments and Equipment, Moscow.
All Union Scientific Research Institute of Railway Hygiene, Ministry of Transportation.
Central Institute for the Advanced Training of Physicians, Moscow.
Institute of Hygiene, Moscow.
Scientific Research Institute of Neurosurgery, Leningrad.
State Institute of Physical Culture, Moscow.
Scientific Research Institute of Occupational Physiology, Donetsk.
Ukrainian Institute of Industrial Hygiene and Occupational Diseases, Kharkov Georgian Institute of Physical Culture, Tbilisi.
From the foregoing, it can be observed that even in the early phases of the Soviet space life sciences effort, more than 50 major facilities across the U.S.S.R. had some involvement in that effort. Presumably, the same and additional facilities have continued that involvement to date.
PRESENT ORGANIZATION
Source: Biotechnology, Inc., 1-975.
Today, the facility with overall and centralized responsibility for the space life sciences is the Institute of Biomedical Problems in Moscow under the direction of Dr. Oleg Gazenko. This facility was constructed in the late 1960s. Many of the articles published in the Soviet journal, Space Biology and Aerospace Medicine, largely reflect the research being conducted and supported by this facility.
As in the U.S. space life sciences program, a definitive priontization of problem areas has been developed in the Soviet program as will be reviewed in subsequent sections of this chapter. These current problem areas have been identified on the basis of experience gained from 20 years of spaceflight and include:
—motion sickness in space;
—cardiovascular and body muscle deconditioning;
—hematological (blood) changes;
—bone mineral loss;
—psychology and human factors in prolonged flights; and
—space cabin toxicology in prolonged flights. (8)
Additional problem areas of continuing concern involving prolonged flights, including flights to the planets, include:
—selection of space personnel;
—medical training of flight crews;
—medical care during prolonged flights;
—extravehicular activity;
—artificial gravity; and
—man/man and man/machine interfaces and design. (9)
A more detailed breakdown of these problem areas follows:
Acceleration and Deceleration Effects: Impact Accelerations, Coriolis Accelerations (vestibular effects).
Acoustic Energy Effects.
Altered and Normal Gas Atmospheres: Oxygen (hypoxia, hyperoxia), Carbon dioxide (hypercapnia, acapnia), Noxious Gases (carbon monoxide, pyrolysis by-products, etc.), Odors (food, body, chemical, etc.).
Biological Rhythms: Circadian Rhythms, Work-Rest Cycles.
Decompression Effects: Hypoxia, Dysbarism (decompression sickness), Explosive
Decompression.
Diseases and Injury: Cause and Prevention, Treatment and Drug Therapy, Personal Hygiene.
Nutrition: Vitamins, Minerals, Natural and Synthetic Foods, Food Packaging.
Radiation: Relative Biological Effectiveness, Dose and Dose Rate, Somatic and Genetic Effects, Protective Measures (drugs, shielding, force fields, etc.).
Temperature and Humidity: Hyperthermia, Hypothermia.
Weightlessness: Motor Kinetics, Motion Sickness, Hypodynamia and Hypokinesia,
Preventive and Prophylactic Measures.
Work Capacity: Fatigue, Muscle Tone.
Physical Training and Exercise.
Subjects being investigated in the psychological and behavioral sciences include:
Boredom and Confinement.
Disorientation.
Mental Fatigue.
Motivation and Vigilance.
Neuroses and Psychoses: Anxiety, Compulsion, Depression, Phobia.
Personality Dynamics: Group Interaction.
Space Crew Problems: Requirements, Selection and Screening, Training, Task
Analysis, Work Schedule and Performance.
Weightlessness Effects: Orientation, Work-Rest Cycles (sleep etc.).
Human engineering subjects include:
Air Conditioning: Spacecraft Temperature and Humidity Control, Atmosphere
Control, Oxygen and Diluent Gas Management, Carbon Dioxide Removal, Photosynthesis of Lower and High Plants, Odor Management, Toxic Gas Management.
Fire Hazard Management.
General Life Support Management: Food Storage, Preservation, and Refrigeration, Personal Hygiene Equipment.
Insulation (acoustic and thermal).
Leisure, Exercise, and Recreation Equipment.
Instrumentation: Biomedical Monitoring, Biotelemetry, Communications Equipment (radar, T.V., radio, etc.).
Radiation Protection (U.V., I.R., Ionizing, etc.): Individual Shielding, Electrostatic, Magnetic, or Electromagnetic Force Fields.
Safety and Survival Equipment: Space Suits, Emergency Rescue Equipment,
Emergency Pressure and Atmosphere Control, Repair and Maintenance Equipment.
Sanitation Facilities: Waste Management, Disposal, and Storage.
Space Vehicle Controls and Equipment: Manual and Automatic Controls, Cabin
Atmosphere Controls. . , „
Vision: Lighting and Color Scheme, Instrument and Other Displays, Optical Controls (Periscope).
Washing and Hygiene Equipment. .
Water Recycling and Purification: Respiration, Urine, and Perspiration Management.
Problems of particular concern in the continuing Soviet space life sciences effort include:
Concentrated Ground Laboratory Studies— .
Effect of Hypokinesia (reduced movement): Simulation of Prolonged Weightlessness (improvement in techniques).
Energy Loss Studies: Gravitational Effects, Space-suit Limitations, Oxygen Deficiency Effects. .
Acceleration Effects: Hyperoxia (high oxygen or air pressures), Metabolic btudies, Pharmaco-dynamics, Biochemistry and Cell Physiology. , , ,,, , ,
Mechanism of Adaptation to Space Factors: Role of Neural and Neuro-humora Mechanisms, Regeneration Processes (emphasis on blood cell replacement) Central Nervous System Conditioning, Inhibition of Cerebellar Functions, Vestibular Analyzer Conditioning, Eye Effects (vision generally).
INFORMATION RESOURCES
In the early phases of the Soviet spaceflight program (roughly 1960-67), it was difficult to obtain timely and detailed information about the program from the open-source literature, including scientific journals, monographs, and popular media such as newspapers. First, few people in the United States had a command pf the Russian language. Second, it was quite difficult to obtain source material. Therefore, a concerted effort was made in this country to overcome this information gap. Private foundations, academic institutions, and the Federal Government, including military and intelligence concerns, pooled and organized personnel with the proper linguistic and scientific background in order to screen systematically the Russian and East European scientific and technical literature. Some early efforts toward this end were quite successful. One such organization, the Aerospace Technology Division of the Library of Congress, provided the Federal Government and other interested concerns with timely compilations of bibliographic materials, abstracts of the Soviet and East European literature, and comprehensive reports synthesized from these materials. As new and more automated methods of processing foreign literature came into vogue, manual operations were phased out. Thus, the Aerospace Technology Division was terminated in 1969.
Since that time, a number of Federal Government and private concerns continue to provide translated and abstracted materials relating to the Soviet spaceflight effort. It is worthy to note that there is at present no significant, centralized effort in the United States to systematically locate, translate or abstract, and disseminate the Soviet life sciences literature to the space life sciences community. Major organizations which provide published translations and abstracts of the Soviet and East European literature in clude NASA, the Joint Publications Research Service (JPRS), and a variety of non-Government translation agencies. Most translated and abstracted materials may be obtained from the National Technical Information Service (Springfield, Va. 22151). The various Federal sources of information related to the Soviet spaceflight effort in general and to the Soviet space life sciences effort in particular are provided.
Source: Biotechnology, Inc., 1975.
The task of collecting, translating, or abstracting, let alone disseminating the voluminous Soviet literature dealing with the space and space-related life sciences, continues to be quite complicated. Sources of information and data are varied and often difficult to identify and obtain. From 1972 through 1981, the U.S./U.S.S.R. Working Group on Space Biology and Medicine, sponsored by NASA and the U.S.S.R. Academy of Sciences, was a source of information that has appeared in various conference proceedings and other publications in one form or another. There have been no formal Working Group publications
From 1979 through 1980, the Soviet space life sciences literature was summarized on an annual basis by the Life Sciences Division of NASA. Inputs to those summaries were provided by the NASA Unit of the Federal Research Division, Library of Congress and by a private firm, Biotechnology Incorporated of "Falls Church, Virginia. (10, 11)
The raw material for the U.S.S.R. Space Life Sciences Digest was obtained from a variety of sources listed below:
—Abstracts in Soviet space biology and medicine provided by the Library of Congress, Federal Research Division—NASA Unit 11-G.
—Aerospace Medicine and Biology—A continuing bibliography(NASA SP-7011).
—Scientific and Technical Aerospace Reports—A bibliography produced by the Scientific and Technical Information Office, NASA.
—Foreign Broadcast Information Service, Volume III, Soviet Union—NTIS. Abbreviated FBIS.
—Daily Soviet News Abstracts Publication—Translated abstracts of news items from the Soviet press. Published by Foreign Technology Division, Battelle Columbus Laboratories. Abbreviated Daily SNAP.
—Space Biology and Aerospace Medicine—A complete translation of the Russian language monthly journal Kosmicheskaya Biologiya i Aviakosmicheskaya Meditsina, published in the United States by Joint Publications Research Service.
—U.S.S.R. Report, Biomedical and Behavioral Science—Translated articles and abstracts in biochemistry, radiobiology, aerospace biology, and medicine, from a variety of Russian language sources. Published in the United States by Joint Publications Research Service.
—U.S.S.R. Report, Space—Translated articles and abstracts of formal scientific reports and news items on the Soviet space program, from a variety of foreign language sources. Published in the United States by Joint Publications Research Service.
—U.S.S.R. Report, Life Sciences—Effects of Nonionizing Electro-magnetic Radiation—Translated articles, abstracts and news items from U.S.S.R. scientific and technical journals on the effects of nonionizing electromagnetic radiation on organisms and biological tissues. Published in the United States by Joint Publications Research Service.
—Aviation Week & Space Technology—Weekly periodical published by McGraw-Hill, Inc. Abbreviated AW&ST.
—Astronautics and Aeronautics—Monthly periodical published by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc.
—Aviation, Space and Environmental Medicine—Monthly periodical published by the Aerospace Medical Association.
—Spaceflight—Monthly periodical published by the British Inter-planetary Society.
Until 1982, the trend toward a more open exchange of information in the space life sciences was enhanced by the aforementioned U.S./U.S.S.R. Working Group on Space Biology and Medicine and today it continues through a series of annual international and national conferences in which Soviet space life scientists participate on a regular basis. Summaries of these exchanges may be found in a series of monographs entitled "Foundations of Space Biology and Medicine" which contain contributions of Soviet and United States Researchers. Published in 1975, these monographs contain a wealth of information on the Soviet space life sciences and remain useful references to this day. (12, 13, 14, 15)
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