AD 14 - AD 285 - Early Empire
The Flavians were in some respects merely a compressed version of the Julio-Claudians, for the dynasty began on a high note and ended in disgrace.
Octavianus Csesar, on whom the senate conferred the honorable title of Augustus, which they periodically renewed, and which descended to his successors, possessed the sole dominion of the empire during forty-four years. The government, notwithstanding the great revolutions by which the republic had been converted into a monarchy, was not yet, either in fact or in form, altogether a despotic one. The private interest of the ruler required that the republican form should be preserved to the utmost, as without that he could not make an entire change ; and the rest of his history sufficiently shows, that the cruelty with which he may be reproached in the early part of his career, was rather owing to circum stances than to his natural disposition. But during a reign so long, so tranquil, and so fortunate, could it be otherwise than that the republican spirit, which at the begianing existed only in a few individuals, should evaporate of itself!
The forms under which Augustus held the different branches of supreme power (dictatorship excepted) were ; the consulate, which, till B. C. 21, was annually renewed; and the potestas consularis, which, in B. C. 19, was settled on him for ever; the tribunicia potestas, which was, 30, granted him for ever, rendered his person sacred (sacrosancta), and prepared the way to the judicia majestatis (accusations of high treason). As imperator, 31, he continued commander of all the forces and obtained the imperium proconsular (proconsular power) in all tho provinces. He assumed the magistratura morum (censorship), 19; and became pontifex maximus (high priest), 13. To avoid all appearances of usurpation, Augustus at first accepted the sovereign power only for ten years, and afterwards had it renewed from time to time, for ten or five years, which, at a later period, gave rise to the sacra decennalia
2. TAc Senate. The senate, indeed, remained a permanent council of state, and Augustus himself endeavored to increase its authority by more than one purification (lectio); but the connection between him and
hat assembly seemed of a very fragile nature, as it was undetermined, and could not at this time be settled, whether Augustus was over the senate, or the senate over Augustus. All matters of state could not be brought before the senate, as even the most important often required secrecy. It naturally followed, that a prince, as yet without a court, and who had no proper minister, but only his friends and freedmen, should consult with those whom he thought most worthy his confidence, a Maecenas, or an Agrippa, &c. Hence afterwards was formed the secret council of state (concilium sacretum principis). Among the republican- magistrates the highest lost most; and as so much now depended upon the preservation of peace in the capital, the offices of praefect of the city (prafectus urbis) and praefect of provisions (prafectus annona) were not only made permanent, but became, especially the former, the principal offices in the state.
The spirit of monarchy shows itself in nothing more than in its strict distinction of ranks; hence, therefore, the magistrates, especially the consuls, lost nothing. Hence also the long-continued custom of nominating under-consuls (consules suffixti), which in time became merely a formal assumption of the ornamenta consularia ct triumphalia (consular and triumphal ornaments). Other offices were created for the purpose of rewarding friends and dependents.
3. Introduction of standi>tg armies. The introduction of standing armies, already long prepared, naturally followed a dominion acquired by war; and became, indeed, necessary to guard the frontiers and preserve the newly-made conquests; the establishment of the guards and militia of the city (cohortes pratoriana and cohortes urbarue) were measures equally necessary for the security of the capital and the throne. The creation of two praetorian praefects, however, instead of one, diminished for the present the great importance of that office.
Distribution of the legions over the provinces in castra stativa (fixed camps), which soon grew into cities, especially along the Rhine. the Danube, and the Euphrates (legiones Germanica, Illyrica, et Syriaaz). Fleets also were stationed at Misenum and Ravenna.
4. The Provinces divided between the Emperor and the Senate. The government, as well as the administration and revenue of the provinces, Augustus willingly divided with the senate; keeping to himself those on the frontiers (provincia principis), in which the legions were quartered, and. leaving to that assembly the others (provincial senatus). Hence his deputies (legati, lieutenants) exercised both civil and military authority in his name; while those of the senate, on the contrary {proconsules), only administered in civil affairs. Both were, in general attended by commissioners (procurators et quastores). The provinces were unquestionably gainers by this new arrangement, not only because their governors were more carefully looked after, but because they were paid by the state.
The fate of the provinces naturally depended, in a great degree, upon the disposition of the emperor and governor; but there was also an essential difference between the provinces cf the emperor and those of the senate (provincial principis et senatus): in the latter there was no military oppression as there was in the former; and to that may be ascribed the flourishing state of Gaul, Spain, Africa, ete.
5. Finances: the private and military cliest of the emperor; the state chest swallowed up by the former. There is little doubt but that the finances of the treasury remained, upon the whole, much the same as before; but in its internal administration Augustus made many alterations, of which we have but a very imperfect knowledge. Of course there would be at first an obvious difference between the privy and military chest of the emperor (fiscu$), which was at his immediate disposal, and the state chest (ararium), which ho disposed of indirectly through the senate, though it must afterwards follow as a natural consequence of increasing despotism, that the latter should progressively become merged in the former.
The great disorder into which the treasury had been thrown during the civil wars, and especially by giving away the state lands in Italy to the soldiers, together with the heavy sums required for the maintenance of the standing army now established, must have rendered it much more difficult for Augustus to accomplish the reform he so happily executed, and in which it seems to have been his chief aim to place every thing, as far as possible, upon a solid and lasting foundation. The principal changes which he made in the old system of taxation seem to have been: 1. That the tithes hitherto collected in the provinces should be changed into a fixed quota, to be paid by each individual. 2. The customs, partly by re-establishing former ones, and partly by imposing new ones, as well as an excise (centesima rerum venalium)t were rendered more productive. The possession of Egypt, which was the dep6t of nearly all the commerce of the East, rendered the customs at this time of great importance to Rome. 3. All the state lands in which the provinces were, by degrees, changed into crown lands. Of the new taxes, the most considerable were the vigesima liereditatum (the twentieth of inheritances), though with important restrictions ; and the fines upon celibacy by the lex Julia Poppaa. The greater part of these
state revenues most likely flowed, from the very first, into the fiscus . that is, the whole revenues of the provincia principis, as well as of those parts of the provincial senatus which were appropriated to the maintenance of the troops ; the revenues arising from the crown domains ; the vigesima, ete. To the ararium (now under three prafecti ararii) remained a part of the revenues of the provincia senatus, the customs and the fines. Thus it appears that Augustus was master of the finances, of the legions, and thereby of the empire.
6. Extension of the Empire. The extension of the Roman empire under Augustus was very considerable ; being generally of such a nature as conduced to the security of the interior, and to the safeguard of the frontiers. The complete subjugation of northern Spain, and western Gaul, secured the frontiers on that side; as did the threatened but never executed expedition against the Parthians, and the one actually undertaken against Armenia, A. C. 2. But the most important conquest in this quarter, was that of the countries south of the Danube, viz., Rhsetia, Vindelicia, and Norieum, as well as Pannonia, and afterwards Moosia. To counterbalance these, the expedition against Arabia Felix completely failed; and that against Ethiopia was of no further consequence than to strengthen the frontiers.
7. Unsuccessful attempt to subdue Germany. All these conquests together, however, did- not cost the Romans so much as their fruitless attempt to subjugate Germany, first, by the sons-in-law of Augustus, Drusus, and Tiberius Nero, and afterwards by the son of the former, Drusus Germanicus. Whether or not this undertaking was a political fault, must always remain a problem, as it is now impossible to say how far the security of the frontiers could be preserved without it.
Rome commenced her hostile attack upon Germany under the command of Drusus, B. C. 12; Lower Germany (Westphalia, Lower Saxony, and Hesse) being in general the theatre of the war ; while the Lower Rhine was attacked both by sea and land at the mouths of the Ems, the Weser, and the Elbe, on account of the great assistance afforded the Romans by their alliance with the nations on the coasts, the Batavi, Frisii, and Chauci. The intrepid Drusus, in his second expedition, 10, penetrated as far as the Weser, and, 9, even as far as the Elbe, but died on his return. His successors in the command (Tiberius, 9-7, Domitius, iEnobarbus, 7-2, M. Vinicius, 2-A. C. 2, then again Tiberius, A. C. 2-4, who was followed by Quintilius Varus, A. C. 5-9), endeavored to build on the foundation laid by Drusus, and, by erecting forts and introducing the Roman language and laws, gradually to reduce into a province the part of Germany they had already subdued ; but the ?raftily organized revolt of the young Arminius (Hermann), a prince of the Cherusci, son of Siegmar, and son-in-law of Segestes, a friend of tho Romans, together with the defeat of Varus and his army in the Teutoburg wald, or forest, near Paderborn, A. C. 9, rescued Germany from slavery, and its language from annihilation. It moreover taught the conquerors (what they never forgot) that tho legions were not invincible. Augustus immediately dispatehed Tiberius, who had just quelled a furious insurrection in Pannonia, together with Germanicus, to the Rhine ; but these confined themselves to simple incursions, till Germanicus, A. C. 14-16, again carried his arms further into the country, and certainly penetrated as far as the Weser. Yet, notwithstanding his victory near Idistavisus (Minden), the loss of his fleet and part of his army by a tempest, on his return, and the jealousy of Tiberius at his victory, obliged him to give up his command. From this time the Germans were left at rest in this quarter.
8. Reign of Augustus-a brilliant period for Rome. The long and, for Italy itself, peaceable reign of Augustus, has generally been considered a fortunate and brilliant period of Roman history; and, when compared with the times which preceded and followed, iU certainly was so. Security of person and property were re-established ; the arts of peace flourished under the benign patronage of Augustus and his favorite Maecenas ; and we may add, that, as the formal restoration of the republic would only have been the signal for new commotions, the government of Augustus, if not the very best, was, at least, the best that Rome could then bear. Should it be said his private life was not blameless, it may be replied, that he inflexibly maintained an outward decency, to which, indeed, he sacrificed his only daughter; and if laws could have bettered the public morals, there was no lack of decrees for that purpose.
Among his most important laws to this end are, the lex Julia de adulLcriis and the lex Papia Poppaa against celibacy. The latter excited many murmurs.
9. Augustus's family: Nearly all that remains of the history of Augustus, is an account of his domestic troubles ; the most unhappy family being that of the emperor. The influence of Livia, his second wife, was very great, but does not seem to have been perverted to any worse purpose than raising her sons, Tiberius and Drusus, to tho throne. The naturally unsettled state of the succession in a government such as that of Rome now was, became much increased by circumstances. After the untimely death of his nephew and son-in-law, Marcellus, whom ho had adopted, his widow, Julia, the only child of Augustus by his wife Scribonia, was married to Agrippa. The two eldest sons of this marriage, C. and L. Caesar, were adopted, upon the death of their father, by the emperor, who showed so much fondness towards them as they grew up, that Tiberius, who, in the mean time, had married their mother, Julia,-afterwards banished by Augustus for her licentious conduct,-left the court in disgust. The death of the two young princes, however, again revived the hopes of Tiberius, who was adopted by Augustus, upon the condition that he should also adopt Drusus Germanicus, the son of his deceased brother, Drusus ; after which Augustus, with the consent of the senate, formally associated him with himself in the government, making him an equal partner in the imperial privileges: called by his successors, lex rcgia.
10. Changes in the Constitution.-Power of tlie Comitia reduced.-Despotism introduced by the Judicia Majestatis.-Degraded character of the Senate.-The reign of Tiberius Claudius Nero, or, as he was called after his adoption, Augustus Tiberius Caesar, from his fifty-sixth to his seventy-eighth year, changed rather the spirit than the form of the Roman constitution. He succeeded quietly to the vacant throne at Rome, although the legions in Pannonia, and still more in ^Germany, felt that they could make emperors. Under him the comitia, or assemblies of the people, were reduced to a mere shadow; as he transferred their duties to the senate, which also became the highest tribunal for the state crimes of its own members: this assembly, however, had now been so much accustomed to obey the will of the prince, that every thing depended on his personal character. Tiberius founded his despotism upon the judicia majestatis, or accusations of high treason, now become an engine of terror, the senate also sharing his guilt with a pusillanimity and servility which knew no bounds. This degraded assembly, indeed, from the moment that it ceased to be the ruling authority of a free state, necessarily became the passive instrument of the most brutal tyranny. Notwithstanding the military talents and many good qualities of Tiberius, his despotic character had been formed long before his fifty-sixth year, when he mounted the throne; although exterior circumstances prevented him from entirely throwing off the mask which he had hitherto worn.
The foundation of the judicia majestatis, which soon became so terrible by the unfixed state of crime, had been laid during the reign of Augustus by the lex Julia de majestate, and the cognitiones extraordinaria, or commissioners appointed to take cognizance of certain crimes: it was, however, the abuse of them by Tiberius and his successors, which rendered them so dreadful.
12. Ruin of Germanicus and his family. The principal object of Tiberius's suspicion, and therefore of his hate, was Germanicus, a man almost adored by the army and the people. This brave general he soon recalled from Germany, and sent into Syria to quell the disorders of the East. After having successfully put an end to the commotions which called him there, he was poisoned by the contrivances of Cn. Piso and his wife; and even that did not shelter the numerous family which he left behind, with his widow Agrippina, from persecution and ruin.
13. L. JElius Sejanus, the cruel minister of Tiberius, 23-31.- Tiberius retires to Caprea, 26.-Fall of Sejanus attended with great carnage, 31.-Tiberius becomes a despotic monster. Rome, however, soon experienced to her cost the powerful ascendency which L.-JElius Sejanus, the prsefect of the praetorian guard, had acquired over the mind of Tiberius, whose unlimited confidence he possessed the more, as he enjoyed it without a rival. The eight years of his authority were rendered terrible not only by the cantonment of his troops in barracks near the city (castra pratoriana), but (having first persuaded Tiberius to quit Rome for ever, that he might more securely play the tyrant in the isle of Capreae) by his endeavoring to open a way for himself to the throne by villanies and crimes without number, and by his cruel persecution of the family of Germanicus. The despotism he had introduced became still more dreadful by his own fall, in which not only his whole party, but every one that could be considered as connected with it, became involved. The picture of the atrocious despotism of Tiberius is rendered doubly disgusting by the horrid and unnatural lust which he joined to it in his old age.
Tiberius's misfortune was, that he came too late to the throne. His early virtues made no compensation for his later cruelties. It is properly the former which Vel. Paterculus praises, whose flattery of Tiberius, in whose reign he flourished, is more easily justified than his praise of Sejanus.
14. Caligula, March 16, 37.-Jan. 24, 41. At the age of twentyfive Caius Caesar Caligula, the only remaining son of Germanicus, ascended the throne; but the hopes which had been formed of this young prince were soon woefully disappointed. His previous sickness and debaucheries had so distorted his understanding, that his short reign was one tissue of disorder and crime. Yet he did still more harm to the state by his besotted profusion than by his tiger-like cruelty. At length, after a career of nearly four years, he was assassinated by Cassius Chaerea and Cornelius Sabinus, two officers of his guard.
15. Claudius, Jan. 24, 31.-Oct. 13, 54, the weak tool of his wives and freedmen.-Messalina ; Agrippina procures the throne for her son, with the assistance of Burrhus, and poisons Claudius. His uncle Tiberius Claudius Caesar, who, at the age of fifty, succeeded him, was the first emperor raised to the throne by the guards; a favor which he rewarded by granting them a donative. Too weak to rule of himself, almost imbecile from former neglect, profligate, and cruel from fear, he became the tool of the licentiousness of his wives and freedmen. Coupled with the names of Messalina and Agrippina, we now hear, for the first time in Roman history, of a Pallas and a Narcissus. The dominion of Messalina was still more hurtful to the state by her rapacious cupidity. to which every thing gave way, than by her dissolute life ; and the blow which at last punished her unexampled wantonness, left a still more dangerous woman to supply her place. This was Agrippina, her niece, widow of L. Domitius, who joined to the vices of her predecessor a boundless ambition, unknown to the former. Her chief aim was to procure the succession for Domitius Nero, her son by a former marriage-who had been adopted by Claudius, and married to his daughter Octavia-by setting aside Britannicus, the son of Claudius ; and this she hoped to effect, by poisoning Claudius, having already gained Burrhus, by making him sole praefect of the praetorian guard. Notwithstanding the contentions with the Germans and Parthians were only on the frontiers, the boundaries of the Roman empire were in many countries extended.
Commencement of the Eoman conquests in Britain (whither Claudius himself went) under A. Plautius, from the year A. C. 43. Under the same general, Mauritania, A. C. 42, Lycia, 43, Judaea, 44, and Thrace, 47, were reduced to Roman provinces. He also abolished the prefectures which had hitherto existed in Italy.
16. Nero. Oct. 13, 54.-June 11, 68.-His education and character.-Destroys Britannicus and all the Julian family: his vanity also makes him cruel: murders his wife and mother; plunders the provinces to support his profligacy, A. C. 68. Nero Claudius Caesar, supported by Agrippina and the praetorian guard, succeeded Claudius at the ago of seventeen. Brought up in the midst of the blackest crimes, and, by a perverted education, formed rather for a professor of music and the fine arts than for an emperor, he ascended the throne like a youth eager for enjoyment; and throughout his whole reign his cruelty appears subordinate to his fondness for debaucheries and revelry. The unsettled state of the succession first called into action his savage disposition; and after the murder of Britannicus the sword fell in regular order upon all those who were even remotely connected with the Julian family. His vanity as a performer and composer excited in an equal degree his cruelty; and, as among all tyrants, every execution gives occasion for others, we need not wonder at his putting to death every one that excelled him. His connection, how
ever, in the early part of his reign, with Agrippina, Burrhus, and Seneca, during which he introduced some useful regulations into the treasury, kept him within the bounds of decency. But Poppaea Sabina having driven him on to the murder of his mother and his wife Octavia, and Tigellinus being made his confidant, he felt no longer restrained by the fear of public opinion. The executions of individuals. nearly all of which history has recorded, was not, perhaps, upon the whole, the greatest evil; the plunder of the provinces, not only to support his own loose and effeminate pleasures, but also to maintain the people in a continual state of intoxication, had nearly caused the dissolution of the empire. The last years of Nero were marked by a striking and undoubted insanity, which displayed itself in his theatrical performances, and even in the history of his fall. It appears that both around and upon a throne like that of Rome, heroes were formed for vice as well as for virtue!
Discovery of the conspiracy of Piso, 6o, and the revolt of Julius Vindex in Celtic Gaul, 68, followed by that of Galba in Spain, who is there proclaimed emperor, and joined by Otho, in Lusitania. Nevertheless, after the defeat of Julius Vindex in Upper Germany by the lieutenant Virginius Rufus, these insurrections seemed quelled, when the praetorian guard, instigated thereto by Nymphidius, broke out into rebellion in Rome itself. Flight and death of Nero, June 11, 68. Foreign wars during his reign : in Britain (occasioned by the revolt of Boadicea), great part of which was subdued and reduced to a Roman province, by Suetonius Paulinus ; in Armenia, under the command of the valiant Corbulo, against the Parthians; and in Palestine against the Jews, 66. Great fire in Rome, 64, which gives rise to the first persecution against the Christians.
The principal cause why the despotism of Nero and his predecessors was so tamely submitted to by the nation, may undoubtedly be found in the fact, that the greater part of it was fed by the emperors. To the monthly distributions of corn were now added the extraordinary congiaria and viscerationes (supplies of wine and meat). The periods of tyranny were very likely the golden days of the people.
17. Extinction of the Julian family causes many troubles.- Galba, June 11. 68-Jan. 15, 69, killed by the prcclorian guard. By the death of Nero the house of Caesar became extinct, and this gave rise to so many commotions, that in somewhat less than two years, four emperors by violence obtained possession of the throne. The right of the senate to name, or at least to confirm, the successors to the throne, was still indeed acknowledged; but as the armies had found out that they could create emperors, the power of the senate dwindled ir to an empty ceremony. Servius Sulpicius Galba, now seventy-two years of agft having been already proclaimed emperor by the legions in Spain, and acknowledged by the senate, gained possession of Rome without striking a blow, the attempt of Nymphidius having completely failed, and Virginius Rufus voluntarily submitting to him. Galba, however, having given offence both to the praetorian guard and the German legions, was dethroned by the guards, at the instigation of his former friend Otho, at the very time when he thought he had secured his throne by adopting the young Licinius Piso, and had frustrated the hopes of Otho.
18. Otho, Jan., 69-April 16. M. Otho, aged thirty-seven, was indeed acknowledged emperor by the senate, but wanted the sanction of the German legions, who proclaiming their general, A. Vitellius, emperor, invaded Italy. Otho marches against him, but after the loss of the battle of Bedriacum kills himself-whether from fear or patriotism, remains uncertain.
19. Vitellius, April \6, Dec. 20, 69.- Vespasian proclaimed emperor. Vitellius, in his thirty-seventh year, was acknowledged emperor not only by the senate, but likewise in the provinces; his debaucheries and cruelty, however, together with the licentiousness of his troops. having rendered him odious at Rome, the Syrian legions rebelled and proclaimed their general, T. Flavius Vespasian, emperor, who, at the solicitation of the powerful Mutianus, governor of Syria, accepted the imperial diadem. The troops on the Danube declaring for him shortly after, and marching into Italy under their general Antonius Primus, defeated the army of Vitellius at Cremona. Vitellius was immediatly hurled from the throne, though not till after some blood had been spilt by the commotions that took place at Rome, in which Flavius Sabinus. the brother of Vespasian, was slain, and the capitol burnt.
20. Vespasian, Dec. 20, 69-June 24. 79. Fixes the power of tlie senate; improves the treasury ; founds public buildings, and promotes education ; banishes the Stoies; and annuls the judicia majestatis. Flavius Vespasian ascended the throne in his fifty-ninth year, and became thereby the founder of a dynasty which gave three emperors to Rome. The state, almost ruined by profusion, civil war, and successive revolutions, found in Vespasian a monarch well suited to its unhappy condition. Ho endeavored, as far as he could, to determine the relations between himself and the senate, while, by a decree, he restored to it all the rights and privileges which had been conferred upon it by hia predecessors of the family of Caesar, and settled and added some others (lex regia). He made a thorough reform in the completely-exhausted treasury, which he recruited in part by reducing the countries Nero had made free, together with some others, into provinces; partly by restoring the ancient customs, by increasing others, and by imposing new ones; without this it would have been impossible for him to have re-established the discipline of the army. His liberality in the foundation of public buildings, as well in Rome as in other cities, and the care with which he promoted education, by granting salaries to public teachers, are sufficient to free him from the reproach of avarice ; and although, on account of their dangerous opinions, he banished the Stoies, (who since the time of Nero had become very numerous, and retained nearly all the principles of republicanism.) the annulling of the judicia majestatis and the restoration of tho authority of the senate show how far he was from being a despot.
Rhodes, Samos, Lycia, Achaia, Thrace, Cilicia, and Commagene, were brought by Vespasian into the condition of provinces. Foreign wars : that against the Jews, which ended with the destruction of Jerusalem, A. C. 70 ; and a much greater war against the Batavians and their allies under Civilis, who, during the late civil wars, sought to shake off tho Roman yoke, 69; but were reduced to an accommodation by Cerealis, 70. Expeditions of Agricola in Britain, 78-85, who not only subdued all England, and introduced the Roman manners and customs, but also attacked and sailed round Scotland.
21. Titus, June 27, 79-Sept. 13, 81. Dreadful fire and plague, 79. His eldest son, Titus Flavius Vespasian, who in the year 70 had been created Caesar, and reigned from his thirty-ninth to his fortysecond year, gives us tho rare example of a prince becoming better on the throne. His short and benevolent reign was, indeed, only remarkable for its publio calamities; an eruption of Mount Vesuvius, overwhelming several cities, was followed by a destructive fire, and a dreadful plague at Rome. His early death secured him the reputation of being, if not tho happiest, at least the best of princes.
22. Domitian, Sept. 13,81-Sept. 18, 96; a complete and cruel despot; unsuceessful in war; raises the soldiers' pay; employs informers. His younger brother and successor, L. Flavius Domitian, who reigned from his thirtieth to his forty-fifth year, gives an example quite opposite to that of Titus; beginning with justice and severity, ho soon degenerated into the completest despot that ever swayed the Roman sceptre. His cruelty, joined to an equal degree of pride, and nourished by suspicion and jealousy, made him the enemy of all who excelled him by their exploits, their riches, or their talents. The mortifications to which his pride must have been subjected in consequence of his unsuccessful wars against the Catti, and more particularly the Daci, increased his bad disposition. His despotism was founded upon his armies, whose pay he augmented one fourth; and that he might not thereby diminish the treasury, as he had too much done at iirst, he multiplied the judicia majestatis, rendering it still more tenible by the employment of secret informers, (dclatores,) in order, by confiscations, to augment the wealth of his private treasury (fiscus). By confining his cruelty chiefly to the capital, and by a strict superintendence over the governors of provinces, Domitian prevented any such general disorganization of the empire as took place under Nero. His fall confirmed the general truth, that tyrants have little to fear from the people, but much from individuals who may think their lives in danger.
The foreign wars during this reign are rendered more worthy of remark by being the first in which the barbarians attacked the empire with success. Domitian's ridiculous expedition against the Catti, 82, gave the first proof of his boundless vanity ; as did the recall of the victorious Agricola, 85, from Britain, of his jealousy. His most important war was that against the Daci, or Getse, who, under their baave king Dercebal, had attacked the Roman frontiers: this again occasioned another with their neighbors, the Marcomanni, Quadi, and Jazygi, 8690, which turned out so unfortunate for Rome, that Domitian was obliged to purchase a peace of the Daci by paying them an annual tribute.
23. Nerva, Jan. 24, 96.-Jan. 27, 98. His reign the dawn of a happy period. M. Cocceius Ncrva, aged about seventy years, was raised to the throne by the murderers of Domitian ; and now, at last, seemed to break forth the dawn of a more happy period for the empire. The preceding reign of terror completely ceased at once; and he endeavored to impart fresh vigor to industry, not only by diminishing the taxes, but also by distributing lands to the poor. The insurrection of the guards certainly cost the murderers of Domitian their lives; but it was at the same time the cause of Nerva's securing the prosperity of the empire after his death, by the adoption of Trajan.
24. Trajan, Jan. 24, 98-Aug. 11. 117, the best of the Roman monarchs. Restores the Roman Constitution. M. Ulpius Trajan, (after his adoption, Nerva Trajan.) a Spaniard by birth, governed the empire from his forty-second to his sixty-second year. He was the first foreigner who ascended the Roman throne, and at the same time the first of their monarchs who was equally great as a ruler, a general. and a man. After completely abolishing the judicia majestatis, he mado the restoration of the free Roman constitution, so far as it was compatible with a monarchical form, his peculiar care. He restored the elective power to the comitia, complete liberty of speech to the senate, and to the magistrates their former authority; and yet he exercised the art of ruling to a degree and in a detail which few princes have equalled. Frugal in his expenses, he was nevertheloes splendidly liberal to every useful institution, whether in Rome or the provinces, as well as in the foundation of military roads, public monuments, and schools for the instruction of poor children. By his wars he extended the dominion of Rome beyond its former boundaries; subduing, in his contests with the Daci, their country, and reducing it to a Roman province ; as he likewise did, in his wars against the Armenians and Partisans, Armenia, Mesopotamia, and part of Arabia. Why was so great a character disfigured by an ambition of conquest 1
'The first war against the Daci, in which the shameful tribute was withdrawn and Dercebal reduced to subjection, lasted from 101-103. But as Dercebal again rebelled, the war was renewed in 105, and brought to a close in 106, when Dacia was reduced to a Roman province, and many Roman colonies established therein. The war with the Parthians arose from a dispute respecting the possession of the throne of Armenia, 114-116; but although Rome was victorious. she gained no permanent advantage thereby.
25. Adrian. By the contrivances of Plotiua, his wife, Trajan was succeeded by his cousin and pupil, whom he is said also to have adopted, P. vElius Adrian, who reigned from his forty-second to his sixty-third year. He was acknowledged at once by the army of Asia, with which he then was, and the sanction of the senate followed immediately after. He differed from his predecessor in that his chief aim was the preservation of peace ; on which account he gave up, (rare moderation !) directly after his accession, the newly conquered provinces of Asia, Armenia, Assyria, and Mesopotamia, and so put an end to the Parthian war. He retained, though with some unwillingness, that of Dacia, because otherwise the Roman colonies would have become exposed. ne well made up for Lis pacific disposition, however, in seeking, by a general and vigorous reform in the internal administration, and by restoring the discipline of the army, to give greater solidity to the empire. For that purpose he visited successively all the provinces of the Roman empire ; first the eastern, and afterwards the western; making useful regulations and establishing order wherever he came. He improved the Roman jurisprudence by the introduction of the edictum perpetuum. Passionately fond of and well instructed in literature and the fine arts, he gave them his liberal protection, and thus called forth another Augustan age. Upon the whole, his reign was certainly a salutary one for the empire ; and for any single acts of injustice of which he may be accused, he fully compensated by his choice of a successor. After having first adopted L. Aurclius Verus, (afterwards JElius Vcrus,) who fell a sacrifice to his debaucheries, he next adopted T. Aurelius Anto
ninus, (afterwards T. iElius Adrianus Antoninus Pius,) upon condition that ho should again adopt M. Aurelius Verus, (afterwards M. Aure lius Antoninus,) and L. Cesonius Commodus, (afterwards L. Verus.) the son of ^Elius Verus.
During his reign a great revolt broke out in Judea, under Barcochab, 132-135, occasioned by the introduction of pagan worship into the Roman colony of JEUa Capitolina (the ancient Jerusalem).
26. Antoninus Pius, July 10, 138-March 7, 161. The reign of Antoninus Pius, from his forty-seventh to his seventieth year, was without doubt the happiest period of the Roman empire. Ho found every thing already in excellent order; and those ministers which Adrian had appointed, he continued in their places. His quiet activity furnishes but little matter for history ; and yet he was, perhaps, the most noble character that ever sat upon a throne. Although a prince. his life was that of the most blameless individual; while ho administered the affairs of the empire as though they were his own. He honored the senate ; and the provinces flourished under him, not only because he kept a watehful eye over the conduct of the governors, but because he made it a maxim of his government to continue in their places all those whose probity he had sufficiently proved. He observed rigid order in the finances, and yet without sparing where it could be of service in the foundation or improvement of useful institutions; as his erection of many buildings, establishment of public teachers with salaries in all the provinces, and other examples fully show. He carried on no war himself; on the contrary, several foreign nations made choice of him to arbitrate their differences. Some rebellions which broke out in Britain and Egypt, and some frontier wars excited by the Germans, the Daci, the Moors, and the Alani, were quelled by his lieutenants.
27. Marcus Aurelius, March 7, 161-March 17, 180.-The northern nations begin to press forward. He was succeeded by Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, the philosopher, (aged 40-59 years.) who immediately associated with himself, under the title of Augustus, L. Verus. (aged 30-40 years, f 169,) to whom he gave his daughter in marriage. Notwithstanding the differences of their character, the most cordial union existed between them during the whole of their common reign ; L. Verus, indeed, being almost always absent in the wars, took but a very small share in the government. The reign of M. Aurelius was marked by several great calamities: a dreadful pestilence, a famine, and almost continual wars. Nothing short of a prince like Aurelius. who exhibited to the world the image of wisdom seated on a throne, sould have made so much misery tolerable. Soon after his accession the Catti made an irruption upon the Rhine, and the Parthians in Asia. L. Verus was sent against them. But the wars on the Danube with the Marcomanni and their allies in Pannonia, and other northern nations, who now began to press forward with great force upon Dacia. were of much greater consequence. They occupied M. Aurelius from the year 167, with but little intermission, to the end of his reign. He succeeded, indeed, in maintaining the boundaries of the empire; but then he was the first who settled any of the barbarians within it, or took them into the Roman service. In the internal administration of affairs he closely followed the steps of his predecessor, except that he was rather too much influenced by his freedmen and family. The only rebellion which broke out against him, was that of Avidius Cassius, his lieutenant in Syria, occasioned by a false report of his death ; but it was quelled by the destruction of that general, as soon as the truth was made known.
The war against the Parthians was indeed brought to a successful issue by Verus, the principal cities of the Parthians falling into the hands of the Romans ; Verus left them, however, to be carried on by his lieutenants, while he rioted in debaucheries at Antioch. The first war against the Marcomanni, carried on in the beginning and until the death of Verus, by the two emperors together, was highly dangerous for Rome, as many other nations had joined the Marcomanni, particularly the Quadi, Jazygi, and Vandals, and penetrated as far as Aquileia. M. Aurelius ended this war by a glorious peace, 174, as he found it necessary to stop the progress of Cassius's rebellion; in 178, however, the Marcomanni again commenced hostilities, and before their close M. Aurelius died at Sirmium. Contemporary with these wars, yet, as it seems, without any connection with them, were the attacks of other nations upon Dacia, the Bastarnse, Alani, ete., who poured in from the north, probably pressed forward by the advance of the Goths. This -was the first symptom of the great migration of nations now beginning.
28. T. Commodus, March 17, 180-Dec. 31, 192.-Perennis, Oleander. By means of adoption the Roman empire had been blessed, during the last eighty years, with a succession of rulers such as have not often fell to the lot of any kingdom. But in T. Commodus, the son of M. Aurelius, (probably the offspring of a gladiator,) who reigned from his nineteenth to his thirty-first year, there ascended the throne a monster of cruelty, insolence and lewdness. At the commencement of his reign he bought a peace of the Marcomanni that he might return to Rome. Being himself unable to support the burden of government, the helm of state was placed in the hands of the stern and cruel Perennis, prwfect of the praetorian guard; but who, being murdered by the discontented soldiers, was succeeded by the freedman Oleander, who put up all for sale, till he fell a sacrifice to bis own insatiable avarice, in a revolt of the people caused by their want of provisions. The extravagant propensity of Commodus for the diversions of the amphitheatres, and the combats of wild beasts and gladiators, wherein he himself usually took a part in the character of Hercules, became a chief cause of his dissipation, and thereby of his cruelty; till at last ho was killed at the instigation of his concubine Marcia, Laetus the pra?fect of the praetorian guard, and Electus. The wars on the frontiers during his reign, in Da cia. and especially in Britain, were successfully carried on by his lieutenants, generals who belonged to the school of his father.
29. State of the Empire at this period. The disasters under M. Aurclius, and the extravagances of Commodus, had injured the empire, but not enfeebled it. Towards the close of the period of the Antonines it still retained its pristine vigor. If wise regulations, internal peace, moderate taxes, a certain degree of political, and unrestrained civil liberty, are sufficient to form the happiness of a commonwealth, it must havo been found in the Roman. What a number of advantages did it possess over every other, simply from its situation ! Proofs of it appear on every side. A vigorous population, rich provinces. flourishing and splendid cities, and a lively internal and foreign trade. But the most solid foundation of the happiness of a nation consists in its moral greatness, and this we here seek for in vain. Otherwise the nation would not so easily have suffered itself to be brought under the yoke of Commodus by praetorian cohorts and the legions. But what best shows the strength which the empire still retained, is the opposition it continued to make, for two hundred years longer, to the formidable attacks from without.
SEC. IX-FROM THE DEATH OF COMMODUS TO DIOCLETIAN. A. C.
193-284.
1. Pcrtinax. Jan. 1, March 28, 193. The extinction of the race of the Antonines, by the death of Commodus, was attended with convulsions similar to those which took place when the house of Coasar became extinct at the death of Nero. It is true that P. Helvius Pertinax, aged sixty-seven, praefect of the city, was raised to the throne by the murderers of Commodus; and that he was acknowledged, first by the guards. and afterwards by the senate. But the reform which he was obliged to make at the beginning of his reign in the finances, rendered him so odious to the soldiers and courtiers, that a revolt of tho first, excited by Laetus, cost him his life before he had reigned quite three months. This was the first commencement of- that dreadful military despotism which forms the ruling character of this period ; and to none did it become so terrible as to those who wished to make it the main support of their absolute power.
The insolence of the praetorian guard had risen very high during tho reign of Commodus; but it had never, even in the time of the Antonines, been entirely suppressed. It was only by large donatives that their consent could be purchased, their caprice satisfied, and their goodhumor maintained; especially at every new adoption. One of the greatest reproaches to the age of the Antonines is, that those great princes, who seem to have had the means so much in their power, did not free themselves from so annoying a dependence.
2. Didius Julianus, Septimius Severus, Pescennius Niger, Albinus. When, upon tho death of Pertinax, the rich and profligate M. Didius Julianus, aged fifty-seven, had outbid, to the great scandal of the people, all his competitors for the empire, and purchased it of the praetorian guard, an insurrection of the legions, who were better able to create emperors, very naturally followed. But as the army of Illyria proclaimed their general Septimius Severus, the army of Syria, Pescennius Niger, and the army of Britain, Albinus, nothing less than a series of civil wars could decide who should maintain himself on the throne.
3. Albinus kills himself, Feb. 19, 197. Septimius Severus, however, aged 49-66, was the first who got possession of Rome, and after the execution of Didius Julianus. he was acknowledged by the senate. He dismissed, it is true, the old praetorian guard, but immediately chose, from his own army, one four times more numerous in its stead. And after he had provisionally declared Albinus emperor, he marched his army against Pescennius Niger, already master of the East, whom, after several contests near the Issus, he defeated and slew. Nevertheless, having first taken and destroyed the strong city of Byzantium, a war with Albinus soon followed, whom the perfidious Severus had already attempted to remove by assassination. After a bloody defeat near Lyons, Albinus kills himself. These civil wars were followed by hostilities against the Parthians, who had taken the part of Pescennius, and which ended with the plundering of their principal cities. Severus possessed most of the virtues of a soldier; but the insatiable avarice of his minister, Plautianus, the formidable captain of the praetorian guard, robbed the empire even of those advantages which may bo enjoyed under a military government, until he was put to death at the instigation of Caracalla. To keep his legions employed, Severus undertook an expedition into Britain, where, after extending the boundaries of the em pire, he died at York (Eboracum), leaving his son the maxim. u to enrich the soldiers, and hold the rest for nothing."
Agricola had already erected a line of fortresses, probably between the Firth of Clyde and the Firth of Forth. These were changed by Adrian into a wall along the present boundaries of Scotland. Severus again extended the frontiers, re-established the fortresses of Agricola, and afterwards built a wall from sea to sea ; his son, however, gave up the conquered country, and the wall of Adrian again became the boundary of the empire.
4. Caracalla, Feb. 4, 211-April 4,217.- Geta murdered, April 4, 212. The deadly hatred which reigned between the two sons of Severus, M. Aurelius Antoninus Bassianus Caracalla, aged 23-29, and his young step-brother, Geta, aged twenty-one, led to a dreadful catastrophe ; for, at their return to Rome, and after a fruitless proposition had been made for a division of the empire, Geta was assassinated in the arms of his mother, Julia Domna, together with all those who were considered as his friends. The restless spirit of Caracalla, however, soon drew him from Rome, and in traversing first the provinces along the Danube, and then those of the East, he ruined them all by his exactions and cruelty, to which he was driven for money to pay his soldiers, and to purchase peace of his enemies on the frontiers. The same necessity led him to grant the right of citizenship to all the provinces, that he might thereby gain the duty of the vicesima /iereditatum ct inanumissionum (twentieth upon inheritances and enfranchisements). which he very soon afterwards changed into a tenth (decima).
With respect to his foreign wars, his first was against the Catti and Alemanni, among whom he remained a long time, sometimes as a friend, and sometimes as an enemy. But his principal efforts, after having previously ordered a dreadful massacre of the inhabitants of Alexandria, to satisfy his cruel rapacity, were directed against the Parthians; and in his wars against them he was assassinated by Macrinus, the praefect of the praetorian guard.
The prefect or captain of the praetorian guard became, from the time of Severus, the most important officer in the state. Besides the command of the guards, the finances were also under his control, together with an extensive criminal jurisdiction-a natural consequence of the continually increasing despotism.
5. Macrinus, April 11, 217-June 8, 218. His murderer, M. Opelius Macrinus, aged fifty-three, was recognized as emperor by the soldiers, and forthwith acknowledged by the senate. Ho immediately created his son, M. Opelius Diadumenus, aged nine years, Caesar, and gave him the name of Antoninus. He disgracefully terminated the war against
the Partisans by purchasing a peace, and changed the deciina (tenth) of Caracalla again into the vicesima (twentieth). However, while he still remained in Asia, Bassianus Heliogabalus, grand-nephew of Julia Domna, and high priest in the temple of the Sun at Emesa, whom his mother gave out for a son of Caracalla, was proclaimed emperor by the legions, and after a combat with the guards, subsequently to which Macrinus and his son lost their lives, they raised him to the throne.
Maesa, the sister of Julia Domna, had two daughters, both widows: Soscmis, the eldest, was the mother of Heliogabalus, and Mammaea, the youngest, the mother of Alexander Severus.
6. Heliogabalus, June 8,218-March 11,222. Heliogabalus, aged 14-18, who assumed the additional name of M. Aureliua Antoninus, brought with him from Syria the superstitions and voluptuousness of that country. He introduced the worship of his god, Hcliogabal, in Rome, and wallowed openly in such brutal and infamous debaucheries, that history can scarcely find a parallel to his dissolute, shameless, and scandalous conduct. How low must the morality of that age have been sunk, in which a boy could so early have ripened into a monster! The debasement of the senate, and of all important offices, which he filled with the degraded companions of his own lusts and vices, was systematically planned by him; and he deserves no credit even for the adoption of his cousin, the virtuous Alexander Severus, as he shortly after endeavored to take away his life, but was himself, for that reason, assassinated by the praetorian guards.
7. Alexander Severus, March 11, 222-Aug., 235. His young cousin and suecessor, M. Aurelius Alexander Severus, aged 14-27, who had been carefully educated under the direction of his mother Mammaea, proved one of the best princes in an age and upon a throne where virtues were more dangerous than vices. Under favor of his youth he endeavored to effect a reform, in which he was sup ported by the co-operation of the guards, who had elevated him to the throne. He restored the authority of the senate, from among whom he chose, with rigid justice, his privy council of state, banishing the creatures of Heliogabalus from their places. The revolution in the Parthian empire, out of which was now formed the new Persian, was of so much importance to Rome, that' it obliged Alexander to undertake a war against Artaxerxes, in which he was probably victorious. But while marching in haste to protect the frontiers against the advance of the Germans upon the Rhine, his soldiers, exasperated at the severity of his discipline, and incited by the Thracian Maximin, murdered him in his own tent. His praefect of the praetorian guard, Ulpian, had already, for the same cause, fallen a victim to this spirit of insubordination, which was not checked even by the immediate presence of the emperor himself.
The revolution in Parthia, whereby a new Persian empire was formed, became a source of almost perpetual war to Rome; Artaxerxes I., and his successors, the Sassanides, claiming to be descendants of the ancient kings of Persia, formed pretensions to the possession of all the Asiatic provinces of the Roman empire.
8. Maximinus, Aug., 235-May, 238. The death of A. Severus raised military despotism to the highest piteh, as it placed on the throno the half savage C. Julius Maximinus, by birth a Thracian peasant. At first he continued the war against the Germans with great success, repulsing them beyond the Rhine; and resolved, by crossing Pannonia, to carry the war even among the Sarmatians. But his insatiable rapacity, which spared neither the capital nor the provinces, made him hateful to all; and Gordian, proconsul of Africa, in his eightieth year, was, together with his son of the same name, proclaimed Augustus by the people, and immediately acknowledged by the senate. Upon this, Maximinus, eager to take vengeance on the senate, marched directly from Sirmium towards Italy. In the mean time, the legions of the almost defenceless Gordians were defeated in Africa, and themselves slain by Capellianus the governor of Numidia. Notwithstanding this, as the senate could expect no mercy, they chose as co-emperors the praefect of the city, Maximus Pupienus, and Clodius Balbinus, who, in conformity with the wishes of the people, created the young Gordia* III., Caesar. In the meanwhile Maximinus, having besieged Aquileia, and the enterprise proving unsuccessful, was slain by his own troops. Pupienus and Balbinus now seemed in quiet possession of the throne , but the guards, who had already been engaged in a bloody feud with the people, and were not willing to receive an emperor of the senate's choosing, killed them both, and proclaimed as Augustus, Gordian, already created Caesar.
9. Gordian III, July, 238-Feb., 244. Syrian expedition, 241243. The reign of the young M. Antoninus Gordianus lasted from his twelfth to his eighteenth year. He was grandson of the proconsul who had lost his life in Africa, and in the early part of his reign, acquired a degree of firmness from the support of his father-in-law, Misitheus, prefect of the praetorian guard, as well as from the successful expedition which he undertook into Syria against the Persians, who had invaded that province. But after the death of Misitheus, Philip the Arabian, being made praefect of the guards in his stead, found means to gain tho troops over to himself, and, after driving Gordian from the throne, caused him to be assassinated.
10. Philippus, Feb., ZO-Sept., 249. The reign of M. Julius Philippus was interrupted by several insurrections, especially in Pannonia: until at length Dccius, whom he himself had sent thither to quell the rebellion, was compelled by the troops to assume the diadem. Philip was soon after defeated by him near Verona, where he perished, together with his son of the same name. In this reign the secular games, ludi saculares, were celebrated, one thousand years from the foundation of the city.
11. The Goths, Sept., 249- Oct., 251, 250. Gallus. JEmilianus, May, 253. Valerian. Gallienus, 259-268. Thirty tyrants. Under the reign of his successor, Trajanus Decius, aged fifty. the Goths for the first time forced their way into the Roman empire by crossing the Danube ; and although Decius in the beginning opposed them with success, he was at last slain by them in Thrace, together with his son, CI. Herennius Decius, already created Caesar. Upon this the army proclaimed C. Trebonianus Gallus emperor, who created his son, Volusian, Caesar; and having invited Hostilian, the yet remaining son of Decius, with the ostensible purpose of securing his co-operation, he nevertheless soon contrived to get rid of him. He purchased a peace of the Goths ; but, despised by his generals, he became involved in a war with his victorious lieutenant, iEmilius iEmilianus, in Moesia, and was slain, together with his son, by his own army. In three months, however, ^milianus shared the same fate; Publius Licinius Valerianus, the friend and avenger of Gallus, advancing against him witli the legions stationed in Gaul. Both the people and army hoped to see the empire restored under Valerian, already sixty years of age; but, although his generals defended the frontiers against the Germans and Goths, he himself had the misfortune to be defeated and taken prisoner by the superior forces of the Persians. Upon this event his son and associate in the empire, P. Licinius Gallienus, who knew every thing except the art of governing. reigned alone. Under his indolent rule the Roman empire seemed on one hand ready to be split into a number of small states, while on the other it seemed about to fall a prey to the barbarians; for the lieutenants in most of the provinces declared themselves independent of a prince whom they despised, and to which, indeed, they were driven, like Posthumius in Gaul, for their own security. There were nineteen of these; but as many of them named their sons Caesars, this period has been very improperly distinguished by the name of the thirty tyrants, although their intolerable oppressions might well justify the latter expression. The Persians at the same time were victorioni in the East, and the Germans in the West.
The German nations which were now become so formidable to the Roman empire, were: 1. The great confederation of tribes under the name of Franks, who spread over Gaul along the whole extent of the Lower Rhine. 2. The allied nations of the Alemanni on the Upper Rhine. 3. The Goths, the most powerful of all, who had formed a monarchy upon the banks of the Lower Danube and the northern coasts of the Black Sea, which soon extended from the Borysthenes to the Don; and who became formidable, not only by their land forces, but also by their naval power, especially after they had captured the peninsula of Crim Tartary (Chersonesus Taurica); and by means of their fleets they not only kept the Grecian but likewise the Asiatic provinces in a continual state of alarm.
12. Claudius, March, 268-Oct., 270. Gallienus losing his life before Milan, in the war against Aureolus, a usurper, had nevertheless recommended M. Aurclius Claudius (aged 45-47) for his successor. The new Augustus re-established in some degree the tottering empire ; not only by taking Aureolus prisoner and defeating the Alemanni, but also by a decisive victory gained at Nissa over the Goths, who invaded Mossia. He died, however, soon after, at Sirmium, of a pestilential disease, naming for his successors Aurelian, a hero like himself, who mounted the throne upon the death of Quintillus the late emperor's brother, who had at first proclaimed himself Augustus, but afterwards died by his own hand.
13. Aurelian, Oct., 270-March, 275. Zenobia defeated and made priso/ier, 271-273. During the reign of L. Domitius Aurelianus, which lasted almost five years, those countries which had been partly or entirely lost to the empire were restored. Having first driven back the Goths and the Alemanni, who had advanced as far as Umbria, he undertook his expedition against the celebrated Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, who at that time possessed Syria, Egypt, and part of Asia Minor. These countries he again brought under the dominion of the empire, after having defeated Zenobia and made her prisoner. The western provinces of Gaul, Britain, and Spain, which since the time of Gallienus had been governed by separate rulers, and were now under the dominion of Tctricus, ho reduced to their former obedience. Dacia, on the contrary, he willingly abandoned; and as he transported the Roman inhabitants across the Danube into Moesia, the latter henceforward bore the name of Dacia Aureliani. Hated for his severity, which in a warrior so easily degenerates into cruelty, he was assassinated in Illyria at the instigation of his private secretary Mnestheus.
Palmyra in the Syrian desert, enriched by the Indian trade, and one of the most ancient cities in the world, became a Roman colony in the time of Trajan. Odenatus, the husband of Zenobia, had acquired so much celebrity by his victories over the Persians, that Gallienus had even named himnAugustus with himself. He was murdered, however, by his cousin Maeonius, 267. Zenobia now took possession of the government for her sons Vabalathus, Herennianus, and Timolaus, without, however, being acknowledged at Rome. After this, in the time of Claudius, she added Egypt to her dominions. Aurelian, having first defeated her near Antioch and Emesa, soon afterward took Palmyra, which, in consequence of a revolt, he destroyed. Even in its ruins Palmyra is still magnificent.
14. Tacitus, Sept. 25, 275-April, 276. An interregnun of six months followed upon the death of Aurelian, till at length the senate, at the repeated solicitations of the army, ventured to fill up the vacant throne. The object of their choice, however, M. Claudius Tacitus, the worthiest of the senators, was unfortunately seventy-five years old, and perished after a short reign of six months, in an expedition against the Goths. Upon this event the army of Syria raised M. Aurelius Probus to the purple; while Florianus the brother of Tacitus, who had already been acknowledged at Rome, was put to death by his own people.
15. Probus, April, 276-August, 282. The six years reign of Probus was a warlike one. He defeated the Germans, and forced them beyond the Rhine and Danube; strengthening the frontiers by building a strong wall from the Danube, near Regensburg, to the Rhine. He also obliged the Persians to make peace. Nevertheless, the number of towns which he re-established and peopled with prisoners of war, and the vineyards which he caused his soldiers to plant on the Rhine, are proofs that he had taste and inclination for the arts of peace. This policy, however, would not suit the legions ! After he had perished, therefore, by the hands of his soldiers, they proclaimed the praefect of the praetorian guard, M. Aurelius Carus, emperor, who created his two sons Caesars- men very unlike each other in disposition, M. Aurelius Carinus being one of the greatest reprobates, while M. Aurelius Numerianus was gentle by nature, and had a mind well formed by study. The new empe
- ror, having defeated the Goths, marched against the Persians, but was shortly afterwards killed, it is said, by a flash of lightning. Nor did his son Numerianus long survive him, being murdered by his own fatherin-law, Arrius Aper, the praetorian prsefect.
16. Review of the Government during this period. Although this period gives us a finished picture of a complete military despotism, it is still evident that this was owing to the entire separation of the military
order from the rest of the people, by the introduction of standing armies, and the extinction of all national spirit among the citizens. The legions decided because the people were unarmed. It was, indeed, only among them, situated far from the soft luxuries of the capital, and engaged in almost a continual struggle with the barbarians. that a remnant of the ancient Roman character was still preserved. The nomination of their leaders to the purple became a natural consequence, not only of the uncertainty of the succession, which could not be fixed by mere ordinances, but often of necessity, from their being in the field under the pressure of urgent circumstances. Thus a succession of distinguished generals came to the throne : what authority, indeed, would an emperor at that time have had who was not a general? All durable reform, however, was rendered quite impossible by the quick succession of rulers. Even the best among them could do but very little for the internal administration ; as all their energies were required to protect the frontiers, and defend themselves against usurpers, who, with the exception of the formality of being acknowledged by the senate, had claims as well-founded as their own.
17. Luxury hastens the decline of the Empiie. The decline of the empire also became so much the more rapid, in proportion as, in these days of terror, luxury had increased not only in the splendor and profligate effeminacy of private life, but more particularly in publie, to a piteh almost beyond belief. The latter was especially shown in the exhibitions of the amphitheatre and circus ; by which not only every new leader, but even every new magistrate, was obliged to purchase the favor of the people. Thus these remnants of a free constitution served only to accelerate the general ruin! What enjoyments, indeed, could be found under the rod of despotism, except those of the grossest sensuality; and to satisfy this, the intellectual amusements of the theatre (mimes and pantomimes). and even those of rhetoric and poetry, were made to contribute.
18. Progress and effects of the Christian religion. Yet, during this general decay, the gradual spread of the Christian religion was working a reform altogether of a different nature. Before the end of this period it had opened itself a way into every province, and, notwithstanding the frequent persecutions, had made converts in every rank of society, and was now on the eve of becoming the predominant form of worship. We shall be better able to estimate its value, if we consider it as the vehicle by which civilization made its way among the rude nations that now appeared on the scene, than if we merely consider it as the means of improving the manners and morals of the Roman world In a political view, it became of the greatest importance, on account of the hierarchy, the framework of which was now in a great measure Cob-/ structed among its professors. It was afterwards adopted as a state religion ; and although the ancient creed of Rome had formerly been on . the same footing, yet it was only caleulated for the republie, and not at all for the now existing monarchy. The overthrow of paganism was necessarily attended with some violent convulsions, yet its loss was nothing to be compared with the support which the throne afterwards found in the hierarchy.
The dispersion of the Jews, and especially the persecutions which were renewed from time to time after the reign of Nero (but which only served to kindle enthusiasm), strongly co-operated in spreading the Christian religion. These persecutions were principally called forth against the Christians, on aceount of their forming themselves into a separate society, which caused them to be regarded as a dangerous sect at Rome, notwithstanding the general toleration granted to every other system of religious belief. Although towards the end of this period, only a very small proportion of the inhabitants of the Roman empire as yet professed the Christian, faith, it nevertheless had followers in every province.
SEC. X.-FROM DIOCLETIAN TO THE OVERTHROW OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE. A. C. 284-476.
1. Diocletian, Sept. 17, 284-May 1, 305. The reign of C. Valerius Diocletian, aged 39-60, proclaimed emperor after the murder of Numerianus, by the troops in Chaleedon, begins a new section in Roman history. To the period of military despotism suceeeded the period of partitions. After Diocletian had defeated Carinus, the yet remaining Caesar, in Upper Moesia, where he was assassinated, he made M. Valerius Maximianus Herculius, a rough warrior, who had hitherto been his comrade in arms, the sharer of his throne. Herculius now contended with the Alemanni and Burgundians on the banks of the Rhine, while Diocletian himself made head against the Persians. Nevertheless, the two Augusti soon found themselves unable to withstand the barbarians, who were pressing forward on every side, more especially as Carausius had usurped and maintained the title" of Caesar in Britain. Each of them, therefore, created a Caesar: Diocletian chose C. Galerius; and Maximianus, Flavius Constantius Chlorus, both of whom had distinguished themselves as generals, at that time the only road to advancement. The whole empire was now divided between these four rulers ; so that each had certain provinces to govern and defend ; without detriment, however, to the unity of the whole, or to the dependence in which a Caesar stood as the subordinate assistant and future successor of his Augustus.
In the partition, 292, Diocletian possessed the eastern provinces; Galerius, Thrace, and the countries on the Danube (Illyricum); Maximianus, Italy, Africa, and the islands; and Constantius, the western provinces of Gaul, Spain, Britain, and Mauritania.
2. Change in Constitution. This new system could not but have a striking effect upon the spirit of the government. It was now not. only in fact, but also in form, entirely in the hands of the rulers. By their continual absence from Rome they became freed from that moral restraint in which the authority of the senate, and the name of the republie, not yet entirely laid aside, had before held them. Diocletian formally assumed the diadem, and, with the ornaments of the East. introduced its luxuries into his court. Thus was laid the foundation of that structure which Constantine the Great had to complete.
3. The change necessary. The consequences of this new system became also oppressive to the provinces, inasmuch as they had now to maintain four rulers, with their courts, and as many armies. But however loud might be the complaints of the oppression occasioned thereby, it was, perhaps, the only means of deferring the final overthrow of the whole edifice. In fact, they succeeded not only in defeating the usurpers, Alectus in Britain (who had murdered Carausius in 293). Julian in Africa. and Achilleus in Egypt; but also in defending the frontiers, which, indeed, by the victories of Galerius over the Persians, they extended as far as the Tigris. Did not, however, the gloomy perspective present itself, that among so many rulers, and the undefined relations which existed between the Caesars and the emperors, the union could not be of long continuance ?
4. Constantius, 305-307. Galerius, 305-313. Diocletian voluntarily abdicated the throne (although the growing power and encroaching disposition of Galerius might perhaps have had some influence), and obliged his colleague Maximianus to do the same. The two Caesars, Constantius and Galerius, were proclaimed Augusti, and altered the division of the empire, so that the former possessed all the western countries, of which, however, he freely ceded Italy and Africa to Galerius, who had all the remaining provinces. The latter, during the same year, created Flavius Severus, Caesar, and confided to him the government of Italy and Africa ; as he did also C. Galerius Maximin, to whom he gave the Asiatic provinces. The administration of the two emperors, however, was very different; Constantius was as much beloved for his mild and disinterested government, as Galerius was hated for his harshness and prodigality. Constantius died very soon after at York, leaving his son Constantine heir to his dominions, who was immediately proclaimed Augustus by the legions, although Galerius would only acknowledge him as Caesar.
5. Constantine the Great, July 25, 306-May 22, 337. Thus Constantine, who afterwards obtained the surname of Great, began to rule, aged 33-64, though at first only over Britain, Spain, and Gaul; nevertheless, after seventeen years of violence and warfare, he succeeded in opening himself a way to the sole dominion of the empire. The rulers disagreed among themselves; and formidable usurpers started up and rendered war inevitable.
The history of the first seven years of Constantine, 306-313, is very complicated; after that he had only one rival to struggle with, 314-323. At his accession, Galerius, as Augustus, was in possession of all the other provinces; of which, however, he had given to Caesar Maximin the government of those of Asia, and to Caesar Severus, now created Augustus, Italy and Africa. The latter, however, rendering himself odious by his oppression, Maxentius, the son of the former emperor, Maximianus, assumed the title of Augustus at Rome (Oct. 28, 306) and associated his father with himself in the government; so that at this time there were six rulers: Galerius, Severus, Constantine, Maximin, and the usurpers Maxentius and his father Maximianus. But in the year 307, Severus, wishing to oppose Maxentius. was abandoned by his own troops, upon which he surrendered himself to Maximianus, who caused him to be executed. In his place Galerius created his friend Licinius Augustus; and Maximin obtained the same dignity from his army in Asia. In the mean time, Maximianus, after having endeavored to supplant bis own son in Rome, fled to Constantine, who had crossed over into Gaul and there defeated the Franks, 306; but having made an attempt upon the life of Constantino, who had married his daughter Fausta, that emperor caused him to be put to death, 310. As the excesses of Galerius soon brought him to the grave, 311, there only remained Constantine, Licinius, and Maximin, and the usurper Maxentius. The latter was soon defeated and slain, 312, before the gates of Rome, by Constantine, who thereby became master of Italy and the capital. A war having broken out about the same time between Maximin and Licinius, Maximin was defeated near Adrianople. and then killed himself, 313. The year 314 brought on a war between the two remaining emperors, Constantine and Licinius, which, however, ended the same year in an accommodation, by which Constantino obtained all the countries on the south bank of the Danube, as well as Thrace and Moesia Inferior; it broke out again, however, in 322, and was finally terminated by a decisive victory in Bithynia, and the total overthrow of Licinius, whom Constantine put to death, 324.
6. However opposite may be the opinions formed respecting the reign of Constantine the Great, its consequences are perfectly plain. Although he annihilated military despotism, he established in its stead, if not completely, yet in great measure, the despotism of the court, and likewise tho power of the hierarchy. He had already during his ex pedition against Maxentius, decided in favor of the Christian religion; and since he thereby gained a vast number of partisans in all the provinces, and weakened at the same time the power of his co-emperors, or competitors, it was the surest way he could have taken to obtain sole dominion, tho great object of his ambition. This change must nevertheless have had very considerable influence on every part of the government, as he found in the previously established hierarchy a powerful support of the throne; and since he, in concert with it, settled what was and what was not the orthodox doctrine, he introduced a spirit of persecution heretofore unknown.
At a period in which religious parties must almost necessarily have become political parties, we can by no means venture to judge of the importance of the sect by the importance of their points of doctrine. The quarrels of tho Arians, which arose at this time, gave Constantine, by the council of Nice, 325, the opportunity he wished for, of making good his authority in religious legislation.
7. Removal of seat of Government. The removal of the seat of empire from Rome to Constantinople was connected with this change in the form of worship-as a Christian court would have been awkwardly situated in a city still altogether pagan-although the need there was of protecting the frontiers against the Goths and Persians had a considerable share therein. It did, indeed, become the principal means of establishing the despotism of the court; but those who regard it as one of the causes of the decline of the empire, should remember, that for an empire fallen so low as the Roman was at this time, despotism was almost the only support that remained.
The various partitions of the empire from the time of Diocletian, had led the way to this change of the capital; because a natural result of that system was, that the emperors and Csesars, when not with the army as they usually were, would reside in different cities. The scat ot Diocletian's government was at Nicomedia; of Maximian's, at Milan; even Constantine himself remained but very little at Rome. In these new residences they felt themselves unfettered; and therefore, although
the Roman senate existed till after the time of Constantino, its authority must have fallen of itself from the time of Diocletian.
8. Consequence of removal of Government. We ought not, therefore, to wonder that the consequence of this removal was so complete a change in the whole form of the government, that after a short time it seemed to be altogether a different state. A partition of the empire was made, which, though it might in part have been founded on those which had previously existed, was yet so different, that it not only changed the ancient divisions of the provinces, but completely altered their mode of government. The court, with the exception of polygamy, assumed entirely the form of an eastern court. A revolution also had taken place in the military system, by the complete separation of the civil and military authorities, which the praetorian prefects had hitherto possessed, but who now became merely civil governors.
Division of Empire. Aceording to the new division, the whole empire was divided into four prefectures, each of which had its dioceses, and each diocese its provinces. The prefectures were : I. The eastern (prafectura Orientis); it contained five dioceses; 1. Orientis; 2. JEgypti; 3. Asia; 4. Ponti; 5. Thracia; forming altogether fortyeight provinces, and comprising all the countries of Asia and Egypt, together with the frontier countries- of Libya and Thrace. II. Prafectura Illyrici, containing two dioceses; 1. Macedonia; 2. Dacia; forming eleven provinces, and comprising Moesia, Macedon. Greece, and Crete. III. Prafectura Italia, containing three dioceses : 1. Italia; 2. Illyrici; 3. Africa; forming twenty-nine provinces, and comprising Italy, the countries on the south of the Danube, as far as the boundaries of Moesia; the islands of Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica, and the African provinces of the Syrtis. IV. Prafectura Galliarum, containing three dioceses ; 1. Gallia; 2. Hispania; 3. Britannia; forming altogether twenty-eight provinces, and comprising Spain and the Balearian islands, Gaul, Helvetia, and Britain. Each of these prefectures was under % prafectus pratorio (pretorian prefect), but who was merely a civil governor, and had under him vicarios, in the dioceses, as well as the rectores provinciarum, of various ranks and titles. They were named proconsules prasides, ete. Besides these, Bome and Constantinople, not being included in any of the four prefectures, had each its prefect.
Organization of Courts. As principal officers of state and the court, (s. cubiculi,) we now for the first time meet with the propositus s. vubiculi, (grand-chamberlain,) under whom were all the comites palatii and cubicularii, in four divisions; these, at a later period, were frequently eunuchs of great influence ; the magister ojfwiorum (chancellor minister of the interior); the comes sacrarum largitiorum (minister of the finances); the quastor (the organ of the emperors in legislation. minister of justice and secretary of state); the comes rei principis (minister of the crown-treasury) [privy-purse] ; the two comites domesticorum, (commander of the household guards.) each of whom had his corps (scholas) under him. The number of the state officers and courtiers was continually increasing. If the good of a commonwealth consisted in forms, ranks, and titles, the Human empire must at this time have been truly happy !
Military Department. At the head of the troops were the magistri peditum (masters of the infantry) and the magistri equitum, (masters of the horse,) under the magister utriusque milita (general in chief of the whole army). Their subordinate commanders were called comites and duces. Constantino considerably reduced the army. In the arrangement of the troops he also made great alterations; these, however, were but of slight consequence compared with that which was produced by admitting into the service a continually increasing number of barbarians.
9. Taxes. It would naturally be expected that these great changes should lead to others in the system of taxation. New taxes, or old ones revived, were added to those already existing, and became by the manner in which they were collected, doubly oppressive. We shall particularly notice, a. The annual land-tax (indictio). b. The tax upon trade (aurum lustrale). c. The free gift, (don. gratuit.) now grown into an obligatory tax (aurum coronariuni). To these wo must add the municipal expenses, which fell entirely upon the citizens, and especially upon the civic officers, (decuriones,) places which must have been generally held by the rich, as Constantino had in great measure appropriated the wealth of the cities to the endowment of churches, and the support of the clergy.
a. The land-tax, or indiction, whi*h if not first introduced by Constantino, was entirely regulated under him, was collected after an exact register, or public valuation, of all the landed estates. Its amount was yearly fixed and prescribed by the emperor, (indicebatur.) and levied by the rectors of provinces and the decurions; an arbitrary standard (caput) being taken as the rate of assessment.
As'this register was probably revived every fifteen years, it gave rise to the cijcle of indications of fifteen years, which became the common era, beginning from September 1,312. In this manner the tax included all those who were possessed of property. b. The tax on commerce, which was levied on almost every kind of trade. It was cot lected every four years, whence the aurum lustrale. c. The aurum coronarium grew out of the custom which obtained of presenting the emperors with golden crowns on particular oceasions, the value of which was at last exacted in money. Every considerable city was obliged to pay it.
10. Spread of t)ie Christian religion. The rapid spread of the Christian religion, the promulgation of which was enforced as a duty upon all its professors, was now aceelerated by the endeavors of the court. Constantino forbade sacrifices,and shut up the temples; and the violent zeal of his suceessors unfortunately soon turned them into ruins.
11. Constantino, Constantius, and Constans. The three Caasars and sons of Constantino the Great, Constantine, 337-340; Constantius, 337-361; and Constans, 337-350; had been carefully educated, and yet resembled one another as much in their vices as they did in their names. They indeed divided the empire again upon the death of their father; but were so eager after territory, which neither of them was qualified to govern, that a series of wars followed for the next twelve years, till at last Constantius was left master of the whole; and by the murder of most of his relations secured the throne to himself.
In the partition of the empire Constantine obtained the prafectura Galliarum, Constans the prafectura Italia et lllyrici, and Constantius the prafectura Orientis. But as Constantine desired to add Italy and Africa to his portion, ho attacked Constans, and thereby lost his life, so that Constans came into the possession of the western countries. In consequence, however, of his wretehed misgovernment, Magnentius, a general, proclaimed himself emperor in Gaul, and Constans was slain in endeavoring to escape, 350. A war with Constantius, who was then occupied in the East, became inevitable, and broke out 351. The usurper was defeated first at Mursa in Pannonia, then retreating into Gaul he was again defeated, 353 ; upon which he slew himself, together with his family.
12. Constantius alone. As Constantius, however-sunk in effeminacy and debauchery, and surrounded and governed by eunuchs-was unable to sustain the weight of government alone, he took his cousin Constantius Gallus, hitherto a state prisoner, and whose father he had formerly slain, to his assistance, created him Caesar, and sent him into the East against the Parthians. But his excessive- arrogance, which was fomented by his wife Constantina, rendered him so dangerous that Constantius recalled him, and caused him, upon his return, to bo put to death in Istria. His younger brother Fl. Julian, from whom the suspicious Constantius believed he had nothing to fear, was promoted in his place, created Caesar, and sent to defend the frontiers on the Rhine. Although Julian passed suddenly from study to warfare, he not only fought against the Germans with success, but also made a deep inroad into their country. In the mean time Constantius, after his generals had been beaten by the Persians, who wished to reconquer the provinces they had ceded, was preparing an expedition against them in person, and with that view endeavored gradually to withdraw the troops of Julian, in consequence of which the latter, suspecting his design, was induced to accept the diadem presented by his soldiers. While marching, however, along the Danube against Constantius, he recoived information of that prince's death in Asia.
13. Julian, March, 360-June 25, 363. Fl. Julian, (the apostate.) who reigned from his twenty-ninth to his thirty-second year. was the last and most highly-gifted prince of the house of Constantino. Instructed by misfortunes and study. he yet had some faults. though certainly free from great vices. He began with reforming the luxury of the court. His abjuration of the religion now become dominant. and which he wished to annihilate by degrees, was an error in policy, which he must have discovered to his cost had his reign been prolonged. Wishing, however, to terminate the war against the Persians, ho penetrated as far as the Tigris, where ho lost his life iu an engagement. after a reign of three years.
14. Jovian, June 25, 363-i
Maximus found himself in possession of all the prafectura GaUiarum ; and by promising Theodosius not to interfere with the young Valentinian II. in Italy, ho prevailed upon him to acknowledge him emperor. But having broken his promise by the invasion of Italy, he was defeated
and made prisoner by Theodosius in Pannonia, and soon after executed. Upon this Valentinian II., a youth of whom great hopes were entertained, became again master of all the West. But, unfortunately, he was murdered by the offended Arbogast, his magister militum; who, thereupon, raised to the throne his own friend Eugenius, magister qffiriorum. Theodosius, however, so far from acknowledging, declared war against him and made him prisoner. He himself thus became master of the whole empire, but died in the following year.
L9. Theodosius the Great, Jan. 19, 369-Jan. 17, 395. The vigorous reign of Theodosius in the East, from his thirty-fourth to his fiftieth year, was not less devoted to polities than to religion. The dexterity with which he at first broke the power of the victorious Goths (though they still preserved their quarters in the provinces on the Danube) procured him considerable influence, which the strength and activity of his character enabled him easily to maintain. The blind zeal, however, with which he persecuted Arianism, now the prevailing creed in the East, and restored the orthodox belief, as well as tha persecutions which he directed against the pagans, and the destruction of their temples, occasioned the most dreadful convulsions. His efforts to preserve the boundaries of tho empire, not a province of which was lost before his death, required an increase of taxes; and however oppressive this might be, we cannot impute it to the ruler as a crime. In an empire so enfeebled in itself, and which, nevertheless, had powerful foes on every side to contend with, it followed that every active reign would be oppressive. Yet never before had the internal depopulation of the empire made it necessary to take so many barbarians into Ro- . man pay, as under this reign; whence naturally followed a change in the arms and tacties of the Roman armies.
20. Final division of'the Roman Empire. Arcadius, 395-408. Honorius, 385-423. Theodosius left two sons, between whom the empire was.divided. Both parts, however, were certainly considered as forming but one empire-an opinion which afterwards prevailed, and even till late in the middle ages had important consequences-yet never since this period have they been reunited under one ruler. The Eastern empire, comprising the prafectura Orientis et Illyrici, was allotted to the eldest sou, Arcadius, (aged 18-31,) under the guardianship of Rufinus the Gaul. 'The Western, or the prafectura Galliarum et Italia, to the younger, Honorius, aged 11-39, under the guardianship of the Vandal Stilico.
21. Alarickingofthe Visigoths. The Western empire, to the history of which we shall now confine ourselves, suffered such violent vhocks during the reign of Honorius, as made its approaching fall plainly visible. The intrigues of Stilieo to procure himself the government of the whole empire, opened a way for the Goths into its interior, just at a time when they were doubly formidable, fortune having given them a leader greatly superior to any they had hitherto had. Alaric king of the Visigoths established himself and his people in the Roman empire, became master of Kome, and mounted the throne : it was the mere effect of chance that he did not overthrow it altogether.
Both Honorius and Arcadius, especially the latter, belonged to that class of men who never come to years of maturity; their favorites and ministers therefore governed according to their own inclination. Stilieo, who made Honorius his son-in-law, was not deficient, indeed, in abilities for governing; and his endeavor to obtain the management of the whole empire, arose, perhaps, from the conviction that it was necessary he should have it. He could not, however, gain his object by intrigue ; for after the murder of Rufinus, 395, he found a still more powerful opponent in the eunuch Eutropios, his successor in the East. Under the regency of Stilieo, Gaul, in consequence of its troops being withdrawn to oppose Alarie, 400, was inundated by German tribes-by Vandale, Alani, and Suevi-who from thence penetrated even into Spain. Nevertheless, he preserved Italy from their attacks by the victory which he gained, 403, over Alaric at Verona; and again over Radagaisus, 405, who had advanced with other German hordes as far as Florence. But Stilieo, having entered into a secret alliance with Alarie, for the purpose of wresting eastern Illyrica from the empire of the East, was overreached by the intrigues of the new favorite Olympius, whose cabal. knew how to take advantage of the weakness of Honorius, and of the jealousy of the Roman and foreign soldiers. Stilieo was accused of aspiring to the throne, and was executed August 23, 408. Rome lost in him the only general that was left to defend her. Alaric invaded Italy the same year, 408, and the besieged Rome was obliged to purchase peace; the conditions, however, not being fulfilled, he was again, 409, before Rome, became master of the city, and created Attalus, the prefect of the city, emperor instead of Honorius, who had*shut himself up in Ravenna. In 410 he assumed the diadem; and, making himself master of the city by force, gave it up to be plundered by his troops. Soon afterwards, while projecting the capture of Sicily and Africa, ho died in Lower Italy. His brother-in-law and successor. Adolphus, together with his Goths, left Italy, now completely exhausted, 412, went into Gaul, and from thence proceeding into Spain, founded there the empire of the Visigoths: he carried with him, however, Placidia the sister of Honorius, cither as prisoner or as hostage, and married her in Gaul. During these events a usurper arose in Britain and Gaul named ConBtantine, 407: he was vanquished, and put to death, 411, by Constaiv tius, one of Honorius's generals. This latter princo not only gave Constantius his sister Placidia, who had become a widow and was restored in 417, in marriage, but also named him Augustus in 421. He died, however, a few months after, so that Placidia henceforward had a considerable share in the government. She went, nevertheless, 423, to Constantinople, where she remained until the death of Honorius.
22. Valentituan III. 425-455. In this manner was a great part of Spain and part of Gaul cut off from the Roman empire during the reign of Honorius. After his death the secretary John usurped the government, but was defeated by the Eastern emperor Theodosius II. The nephew of Honorius, Valentinian III., a minor, (aged 6-36.) was then raised to the throne, under the guardian care of his mother Placidia (150). Under his miserable reign the Western empire was stripped of almost all her provinces with the exception of Italy. Yet the government of his mother, and afterwards his own incapacity, were as much the cause as the stormy migration of barbarous tribes, which now convulsed all Europe.
Britain had been voluntarily left by the Romans since 427. In Africa, the governor Boniface having been driven into rebellion by the intrigues of the Roman general ./Etius, who possessed the ear of Placidia, invited the Vandals from Spain, under the command of Genserie, to come to his assistance. The latter then obtained possession of the country, 429-439 ; indeed, even as early as 435, Valentinian was obliged to make. a formal cession of it to them. Valentinian's wife Eudoxia, a Grecian princess, was purchased by the cession of western Illyricum (Pannonia, Dalmatia, and Noricum); so that of all the countries south of the Danube there now only remained those which belonged to the prarfecture of Italy, Rhaetia and Vindelicia. On the southeast of Gaul was formed, 435, the kingdom of the Burgundians, which, besides the southeast part of France, comprised also Switzerland and Savoy. The southwest was under the dominion of the Visigoths. There remained only the territory north of the Loire which still submitted to the Roman governors; the last of whom, Syagrius, survived the fall of the empire itself; holding out till the year 486, when he was defeated near Soissons by Clodovicus, or Clovis, king of the Franks.
23. The Huns. Attila. But while the Western empire seemed thus of itself almost to fall to pieces, another impetuous rush of nations took place, which threatened the whole of western Europe. The victorious hordes of Huns who now occupied the territory formerly the seat of the Goths, between the Don and the Theiss, and even as far as the Volga, had united themselves since the year 444, under one common chief, Attila; who, by this union and his own superior talents as a warrior and ruler, became the most powerful prince of his time. The Eastern empire having bought a peace by paying him a yearly tribute, he fell with a mighty army upon the Western provinces. The united forces, however, of the Romans under iEtius and the Visigoths, obliged him near Chalons (in campis Catalaunicis) to retreat. Nevertheless, the following year he again invaded Italy, where he had a secret understanding with the licentious Honoria, Valentinian's sister. The cauae of his second retreat, which was soon followed. by his death, is unknown. The miserable Valentinian soon after deprived the Roman empire of its best general, being led by his suspicions to put iEtius to death. Ho himself, however, was soon doomed to undergo the punishment of his debaucheries, being murdered in a conspiracy formed by Petronius Maximus, whose wife he had dishonored, and some friends of iEtius. whom he had executed.
24. The twenty years which intervened between the assassination of Valentinian, and the final destruction of the Roman empire in the West, was nearly one continued series of intestine revolutions. No less than nine sovereigns rapidly succeeded one another. These changes, indeed, were but of little importance in this troublesome period, compared to the terror with which Genseric king of the Vandals filled the Roman empire: he by his naval power having become master of the Mediterranean and Sicily, could ravage the coasts of the defenceless Italy at his pleasure, and even capture Rome itself. While in Italy, the German Ricimer, general of the foreign troops in Roman pay, permitted a series of emperors to reign in his name. It would have beerhis lot to put an end to this series of Augusti, but for mere accident. which reserved that glory for his son and successor, Odoaccr, four years after his father's death. /
After the death of Valentinian, Maximus was proclaimed emperor; but as he wished to compel Eudoxia, Valentinian's widow, to marry him, she called over Genseric from Africa, who took and pillaged-Rome. and Maximus perished after a reign of three months, 455. lie was succeeded by M. Avitus, who ascended the throne at Aries; and ho again was soon deposed by Ricimer, 456, who, just before, had defeated the fleet of the Vandals. Ricimer now placed upon the throne, first Julianus Majorianus, April 1, 457; but he having distinguished himself in the wars against the Vandals, 461, was set aside, and Libius Severus put in his place, who, however, died in 465, probably of poison. His death was followed by an interregnum of two years, during which Ricimer ruled, though without the title of emperor. At length the patrician Anthemius, then at Constantinople, (whero they never gave up their pretensions to the right of naming or confirming the sovereigns of the West,) was, though not without the consent of the powerful Ricimer, named emperor of the West, April 12, 467, by the emperor Leo. But differences having arisen between him and Ricimer, the latter retired to Milan, 469, and commenced a war, in which he took and pillaged Rome. and Anthemius was slain. Ricimer himself followed soon after, Aug. 18, 472. Upon this, Anicius Olybrius, son-in-law of Valentinian III., was proclaimed Augustus, but dying in three months, Oct., 472, Glycerius assumed the purple at Ravenna, without, however, being acknowledged at Constantinople, where they in preference named Julius Nepos Augustus. The latter, in 474, having expelled Glycerius, became also in his turn expelled by his own general Orestes, 475, who gave the diadem to his son Romulus Momyllus, who, as the last in the succession of Augusti, acquired the surname of Augustulus. In 476, however, Odoacer, the leader of the Germans in the Roman pay at Rome, sent him, after the execution of Orestes, into captivity, and allowed him a pension. Odoacer now remained master of Italy till the year 492, when the Ostrogoths, under their king Theodorie, founded there a new empire.
25. Thus fell the Roman empire of the West, while that of the East, pressed on every side, and in a situation almost similar, endured a thousand years, notwithstanding its intestine broils, which would alone have sufficed to destroy any other, and the hosts of barbarians who attacked it during the middle ages. The impregnable situation of its capital, which usually decides the fate of such kingdoms, joined to its despotism, which is not unfrequently the main support of a kingdom in its decline, can alone, in some measure, explain a phenomenon which has no equal in the history of the world.
Valentian III personally murdered Aetius (bad idea) in 454 AD. As someone supposedly told Valentian, "With your left hand, you have cut off your right hand."
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