BC 508 - BC 264 Early Republic
In about 500 BC the Romans overthrew the Etruscan monarchy and established a republic that lasted for four centuries. The expulsion of the Tarquins was followed by long wars with the Etruscans and the Latin tribes, in the course of which Rome for a time had to contend for its existence. A great victory over the Latins in 496 led to the formation of a Latin Confederacy under the leadership of Rome. Thus strengthened the Romans fought successfully against the AEqui, the Volsci and the Sabines, and in 396 captured the Etruscan stronghold of Veii, which was followed by the subjugation of southern Etrura.
There is a marked difference between the histories of kingly period and that which followed the establishment of the republic. The history of the former stretches back into the regions of pure mythology, in little more than a collection of fables told with scarcely any attempt at criticism, and with no more regard to chronological sequence than was necessary to make the tale run smoothly or to fill up the time between the flight of Aeneas from Troy and the supposed foundation of the City. But from its very commencement, the history of the republic wears a different aspect.
A patrician class controlled the government, but the plebians, the vast majority of the population, were allowed to participate in the election of the two consuls, one of whom had to be plebian after 367 BC. The patricians proved to be remarkably flexible and able rulers who successfully retained effective control over the govern- ment despite a continual, if gradual, increase in the participation of the plebians. New institutions were created to deal with the political evolution, in which a large number of wealthy plebian families came to constitute the ruling elite.
King Pyrrhus (318-272 BC) of Epirus was the most brilliant of the military adventurers whom the disturbed times following the death of Alexander the Great had brought into prominence. High-spirited, generous, and ambitious, he had formed the scheme of rivalling Alexander's achievements in the East by winning for himself an empire in the West. He aspired not only to unite under his rule the Greek communities of Italy and Sicily, but to overthrow the great Phoenician state of Carthage—the natural enemy of Greeks in the West, as Persia had been in the East. Of Rome it is clear that he knew little or nothing. The first encounters ended with the complete defeat of the Roman troops. In 275 BC, M.Curius Dentatus, the conqueror of Samnium, was encamped at Beneventum awaiting the arrival of his colleague. Here Pyrrhus attacked him, and the closing battle of the war was fought. It ended in the complete victory of the Romans. Pyrrhus, unable any longer to face his opponents in the field, and disappointed of all assistance from his allies, retreated in disgust to Tarentum, and thence crossed into Greece.
A few years later (272 BC / 482 AUC) Tarentum was surrendered to Rome by its Epirot garrison; it was granted a treaty of alliance, but its walls were razed and its fleet handed over to Rome. Rhegium also entered the ranks of Roman allies, and finally, a single campaign crushed the last efforts at resistance in Samnium. Rome was now at leisure to consolidate the position she had won. Between 273 BC and 263 BC [481-491 AUC] new colonies were founded in Samnium, Lucania—Paestum, Beneventum and AEsernia. In central Italy the area of Roman territory was increased by the full enfranchisement of the Sabines, and of their neighbours to the east, the Picentes. To guard the Adriatic coast, colonies were established at Ariminum (268 BC), at Firmum, and at Castrum Novum (264 BC), while to the already numerous maritime colonies was added that of Cosa in Etruria.
The Lucanians, Bruttians, Sallentines, Picentians, Sarsinatans, and Umbrians, one after another acknowledged the supremacy of Rome, though for the most part not until they had made a last attempt, whereby their fate only became worse. The terms of submission were various: Bruttium, for example, had to give up to the Romans half of the Sila-Forest, which was of great importance for ship-building ; but the Romans acquired the sovereignty and revenues of all those countries. They now established a new chain of fortresses, the first which had been made during the Samnite war being no longer sufficient; on the Adriatic Brundusium, and on the Lower sea, Pyrgi, and others.
By AUC 490 [264 BC], Rome was the mistress of Italy, from Romagna, Ferrara, Ravenna, the marshes of Pisa and the river Macra, down to the Iapygian promontory: it thus became the most powerful and compact state that then existed: it had a large number of free allies, and behaved in such a manner, that there must evidently have existed a general law which regulated its relations with the Italian allies: we clearly see the tendency to form by degrees all those elements into one Roman people. The allies had in reality to blame themselves for having fought so long against the will of fate. The nations retained their own administrations, laws, languages and dialects, but Rome was their central point, and they were gradually to rub off what was foreign to, and irreconcilable with that centre.
Italy was divided for the purpose of taxation, and placed under a definite number of quaestors, who raised the revenues. Hence the increase in the number of quaestors from four to eight. It would almost seem that isopolity was established for all the people of the Oscan and Sabellian races; the Etruscans had a separate constitution. In these regulations, it was determined what part the separate nations were to take in each war, and there must have been a sort of gradation in the services they had to perform, although the consuls were at liberty, on entering upon their office, to announce to the commissioners of the allies, who had then to come to Rome, what number of soldiers each state had to furnish.
At this time, regulations must also have been made to determine what share the allies were to have in the public land of the Romans, and in what proportion they might take part in the foundation of colonies; rules were laid down, moreover, for all Roman allies, on what conditions they might acquire the Roman franchise, and in order that too many might not be drawn from their homes to Rome, it was determined, that whoever should migrate to Rome, should be obliged to leave one member of his family behind in his native place.
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