• Military Menu                       

• Introduction
• Systems
• Facilities
• Agencies
• Industry
• Operations
• Countries
• Hot Documents
• News
• Reports
• Policy
• Budget
• Congress
• Links

• WMD
• Intelligence
• Homeland Security
• Space

Asuka Period - 538-710

The Asuka period in Japanese history is conventionally dated from 538–710 CE, though some scholars say it began in 593 CE with the accession of Empress Suiko to the throne, and art historians say it ended in 645 CE, with the accession of Emperor Kotoku to the throne. The Yamato state evolved still further during the Asuka period, which is characterized by the introduction and assimilation of various aspects of Chinese culture and civilization into Japanese society. The period is named after the Asuka region, south of modern Nara, the site of numerous temporary imperial capitals established during the period. The Asuka period is known for its significant artistic, social, and political transformations, which had their origins in the late Kofun period. Overall, the Asuka period was a time of significant transformation and cultural development in Japan. It set the stage for the subsequent Nara and Heian periods, during which many aspects of Japanese civilization continued to evolve and flourish.

The Asuka period is Japan’s first historical period, different from the prehistoric periods because of the introduction of writing via Korea and China. With the Chinese written language also came standardized measuring systems, currency in the form of coins, and the practice of recording history and current events. Standardization and record-keeping also encouraged the crystallization of a centralized, bureaucratic government, modeled on the Chinese. One of the most significant developments of the Asuka period was the introduction of Buddhism to Japan. Buddhism arrived from Korea via China, and its adoption had profound effects on Japanese culture, art, and religion. Buddhist temples were constructed, Buddhist scriptures were translated into Japanese, and Buddhist rituals and practices were incorporated into daily life. Before Buddhism, Shinto gods were associated with sacred objects such as mirrors and swords (the imperial insignia), after the introduction of the new religion they began to be represented in anthropomorphic images. The Asuka period was a time of extensive cultural exchange between Japan and China. Chinese influence was prominent in various aspects of Japanese society, including politics, religion, art, architecture, and language. Many Japanese nobles studied Chinese literature, philosophy, and political systems, contributing to the Sinicization of Japanese culture. Writing systems were introduced to Japan during the Asuka period. Chinese characters (kanji) were adapted for use in writing Japanese, and the earliest Japanese texts, such as the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki, were written using Chinese characters. This period laid the foundation for the development of Japanese literature and written language. Asuka period art and architecture were heavily influenced by Chinese styles. Buddhist sculpture, temple architecture, and mural paintings reflected the influence of Chinese Buddhist art, while secular art forms such as pottery and metalwork also flourished.

The Yamato court, concentrated in the Asuka region, exercised power over clans in Kyushu and Honshu, bestowing titles, some hereditary, on clan chieftains. The Yamato name became synonymous with all of Japan as the Yamato rulers suppressed the clans and acquired agricultural lands. Based on Chinese models (including the adoption of the Chinese written language), they developed a central administration and an imperial court attended by subordinate clan chieftains but with no permanent capital. By the mid-seventh century, the agricultural lands had grown to a substantial public domain, subject to central policy. The basic administrative unit was the county, and society was organized into occupation groups. Most people were farmers; other were fishers, weavers, potters, artisans, armorers, and ritual specialists.

The Soga had intermarried with the imperial family, and by AD 587 Soga Umako, the Soga chieftain, was powerful enough to install his nephew as emperor and later to assassinate him and replace him with the Empress Suiko (r. AD 593-628). Suiko, the first of eight sovereign empresses, was merely a figurehead for Umako and Prince Regent Shotoku Taishi (AD 574-622). Shotoku, recognized as a great intellectual of this period of reform, was a devout Buddhist, well read in Chinese literature. He was influenced by Confucian principles, including the Mandate of Heaven, which suggested that the sovereign ruled at the will of a supreme force. Under Shotoku's direction, Confucian models of rank and etiquette were adopted, and his Seventeen Article Constitution (Kenpo jushichiju) prescribed ways to bring harmony to a society chaotic in Confucian terms. In addition, Shotoku adopted the Chinese calendar, developed a system of highways, built numerous Buddhist temples, had court chronicles compiled, sent students to China to study Buddhism and Confucianism, and established formal diplomatic relations with China.

Numerous official missions of envoys, priests, and students were sent to China in the seventh century. Some remained twenty years or more; many of those who returned became prominent reformers. In a move greatly resented by the Chinese, Shotoku sought equality with the Chinese emperor by sending official correspondence addressed "From the Son of Heaven in the Land of the Rising Sun to the Son of Heaven of the Land of the Setting Sun." Shotoku's bold step set a precedent: Japan never again accepted a subordinate status in its relations with China. Although the missions continued the transformation of Japan through Chinese influences, the Korean influence on Japan declined despite the close connections that had existed during the early Kofun period.

About twenty years after the deaths of Shotoku (in AD 622), Soga Umako (in AD 626), and Empress Suiko (in AD 628), court intrigues over succession and the threat of a Chinese invasion led to a palace coup against the Soga oppression in AD 645. The revolt was led by Prince Naka and Nakatomi Kamatari, who seized control of the court from the Soga family and introduced the Taika Reform.

Naka assumed the position of minister of the center, and Kamatari was granted a new family name -- Fujiwara -- in recognition of his great service to the imperial family. Fujiwara Kamatari became the first in a long line of court aristocrats. Another, long- lasting change was the use of the name Nihon, or sometimes Dai Nippon (Great Japan) in diplomatic documents and chronicles. Following the reigns of Naka's uncle and mother, Naka assumed the throne as Emperor Tenji in 662, taking the additional title tenno (heavenly sovereign). This new title was intended to improve the Yamato clan's image and to emphasize the divine origins of the imperial family in the hope of keeping it above political frays, such as those precipitated by the Soga clan. Within the imperial family, however, power struggles continued as the emperor's brother and son vied for the throne. The brother, who later reigned as Emperor Temmu, consolidated Tenji's reforms and state power in the imperial court.

Although it did not constitute a legal code, the Taika Reform (Taika means great change) mandated a series of reforms that established the ritsuryo system of social, fiscal, and administrative mechanisms of the seventh to tenth centuries. Ritsu was a code of penal laws, while ry was an administrative code. Combined, the two terms came to describe a system of patrimonial rule based on an elaborate legal code that emerged from the Taika Reform.

Key aspects of the Taika Reform included:

The Taika Reform, influenced by Chinese practices, started with land redistribution, aimed at ending the existing landholding system of the great clans and their control over domains and occupational groups. What were once called "private lands and private people" became "public lands and public people," as the court now sought to assert its control over all of Japan and to make the people direct subjects of the throne. Land was no longer hereditary but reverted to the state at the death of the owner. This was a significant departure from the previous system, where land was largely controlled by powerful clans and local chieftains. By redistributing land, the imperial government aimed to weaken the power of these clans and strengthen its own authority.

The Taika Reform introduced a comprehensive census system to better assess the population and its resources. This information was used to implement a new taxation system based on the Chinese model. Taxes were levied on harvests and on silk, cotton, cloth, thread, and other products. A corvée (labor) tax was established for military conscription and building public works. Taxes were collected in the form of rice and other goods, which were then used to support the imperial court and its officials.

The Taika Reform also introduced the Ritsuryo legal system, which was based on Chinese legal codes. This system established a centralized legal framework that governed various aspects of Japanese society, including land ownership, crime, and social hierarchy. It helped to standardize laws and administration throughout the country.

Inspired by the Chinese bureaucratic system, the Taika Reform established a centralized government structure with various ministries and departments. This included the creation of the Daijo-kan, or Great Council of State, which served as the highest administrative body in Japan. The hereditary titles of clan chieftains were abolished, and three ministries were established to advise the throne (the minister of the left, the minister of the right, and the minister of the center, or the chancellor). The country was divided into provinces headed by governors appointed by the court, and the provinces were further divided into districts and villages.

The Taika Reform marked a significant turning point in Japanese history. It laid the foundation for a more centralized and bureaucratic government system, which would later evolve into the imperial bureaucracy of the Nara and Heian periods. While the reforms were intended to strengthen imperial authority, they also led to increased taxation and control over the populace, contributing to social unrest in the following centuries.

The ritsuryo system was codified in several stages. The mi Code, named after the provincial site of Emperor Tenji's court, was completed in about AD 668. Further codification took place with the promulgation by Empress Jito in 689 of the Asuka- Kiyomihara Code, named for the location of the late Emperor Temmu's court.

The ritsuryo system was further consolidated and codified in 701 under the Taiho Ritsuryo (Great Treasure Code or Taiho Code), which, except for a few modifications and being relegated to primarily ceremonial functions, remained in force until 1868. The Taiho Code provided for Confucian-model penal provisions (light rather than harsh punishments) and Chinese-style central administration through the Department of Rites, which was devoted to Shinto and court rituals, and the Department of State, with its eight ministries (for central administration, ceremonies, civil affairs, the imperial household, justice, military affairs, people's affairs, and the treasury). A Chinese-style civil service examination system based on the Confucian classics was also adopted. Tradition circumvented the system, however, as aristocratic birth continued to be the main qualification for higher position. The Taiho Code did not address the selection of the sovereign. Several empresses reigned from the fifth to the eighth centuries, but after 770 succession was restricted to males, usually from father to son, although sometimes from ruler to brother or uncle.