• Military Menu                       

• Introduction
• Systems
• Facilities
• Agencies
• Industry
• Operations
• Countries
• Hot Documents
• News
• Reports
• Policy
• Budget
• Congress
• Links

• WMD
• Intelligence
• Homeland Security
• Space

Second Vatican Council (1962-5)

There is no doubt that one of the major events that influenced the life of the Church of the XX Century, was the Vatican Council II (1961-1965), that nearly identifies itself with the pontificate of John XXIII. Unlike the previous councils, summoned to face the urgent needs of the life of the Church (schisms, heresies, deviations, etc.), the council courageously wanted by Pope Roncalli derived from the very conception of the Church, as a living and changing reality, a prophetical sign in the world. In the ecclesiological vision of the «good pope», already since the years of his episcopate, emerged the urgency to lead the Church of back to evangelic purity, to let Catholicism, or better still, entire Christianity (thus the summoning in Rome and the council of the lay «observers» and of the representatives of the separated Christian Churches), with a common endeavor, from a long historical season that to the prophetical Pope Roncalli, appeared finished and with not future. Gradually, John XXIII decided to carry out the ecumenical council, certainly unexpected and not totally welcomed by the same Roman Curia. To some it appeared as a desperate and risky task, but the pope's robust faith succeeded in making it possible and fruitful.

Pope John XXIII announced on January 25, 1959, that he would call a general, or "ecumenical," council of the Roman Catholic Church. In announcing the council, Pope John remarked that after two months or so of his pontificate, people were beginning to wonder what would be its character. It is clear that he wishes to be remembered as the Pope of the Council-the first, be it noted, since the promulgation of the doctrine of papal infallibility in 1870. The Pope gave the council the official designation "The Second Vatican Council." This made it clear that it was not to be confined to the unfinished business of the First Vatican Council (interrupted when the troops of Italian unification entered Rome in September, 1870, and ended the pope's rule over the papal States). It also made it easier for non-Catholics* to refer to the coming Council, since "ecumenical" is used with various meanings.

The council issued 16 documents, notably the constitutions on divine revelation (Dei Verbum, November 18, 1965) and on the church ( Lumen Gentium, November 11, 1964) and the pastoral constitution on the church in the modern world (Gaudium et Spes, December 7, 1965). The constitution on divine revelation was informed by the best modern biblical scholarship. The council explained the Roman Catholic understanding of how the Bible, tradition, and church authority relate to one another in the exposition of divine revelation.

The decade of the 1960s was almost revolutionary in world catholicism. The innovations of Pope John XXIII (1958-63) and of the Second Vatican Council (1962-5) had effects which are still being worked out, and it would be natural to expect that in Catholic countries these effects should have been particularly strong. Three examples can be given of developments in world catholicism.

One is the growth of the ecumenical movement. The desire of Pope John XXIII and of the Second Vatican Council to encourage good will among Christians has had its effect where ecumenical contacts have developed rapidly. For the most part these events are irrelevant to a study of Church and State, but their influence has spilled over into the political field.

A second example of how developments in catholicism have paralleled developments elsewhere can be found in the growing freedom of discussion within the Church. The Second Vatican Council encouraged Catholics to speak their minds frankly; the process was carried to lengths which even the most liberal of the Council Fathers must find disconcerting. The most obvious example is the debate over contraception.

A third field in which trends in world catholicism can be seen reflected in that of Catholic social teaching. In 1961 Pope John XXIII published an encyclical on social questions, Mater et Magistra, which was the first comprehensive treatment of social questions by a pope since Pius XI's encyclical Quadragesima Anno of 1931. There are some marked differences of emphasis between the two documents.

During the course of centuries, many features or details had crept into the liturgy, and these features are now regarded as unsuited to the worship of God and out of keeping with the real nature and dignity of that worship. For this reason the liturgical books were revised and the rites simplified. Where possible, the high altar was to be placed in such a way that Mass may be offered by the priest facing the people; the altar should stand away from the wall of the sanctuary, so that room is left to allow the priest to move around it.

The decree "On Ecumenism" continued traditional teaching, but adapted them dramatically. The council reaffirmed that "it is through Christ's Catholic Church alone, which is the all-embracing means of salvation, that the fullness of the means of salvation can be obtained." But Protestants and Anglicans were explicitly regarded as Christians ("separated brethren"), and Eastern Orthodox are treated as directly descendant from the apostles. Most significantly, the Catholic Church, for the first time, did not claim that the solution to these divisions lies in a "return" of these churches to Rome.

Progressives argued that the council reaffirmed ancient traditions even as it made significant reforms: clearing the way for the Mass to be said in native languages, endorsing the search for heartfelt cooperation and doctrinal dialogue with other Christians and, above all, encouraging deeper self-understanding and warm relations with Jews. The conservative minority of bishops at the council were startled to learn that they were the minority, after so many decades of precedence and power. Conservatives argued that the council took several false and damaging turns, leading unintentionally from the confident Roman Catholic Church of the 1950s to the empty churches (in Western Europe) today. In some places, there followed a "me decade" of "cafeteria Catholics" who felt they could pick and choose from church doctrines.

Joseph Ratzinger, was among the leading progressive theologians at the council. Krakow's young Bishop Karol Wojtyla urged the council to focus on two questions -- What do we mean by "the human person"? And what is the nature of human "community"? -- which is exactly what the council did. Wojtyla and Ratzinger became the intellectually powerful Popes John Paul II and Benedict XVI. Both were champions of the progressive cause during the council, while in later years also unmasking the deficiencies in the progressive view.