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China - Burning the Books

China is freqently said to be the oldest continuous major world civilization, with records dating back about 3,500 years, but this is not really true. China's political organization, with its changes and developments (there have been no fewer than thirty-three dynasties), compels contrast with the stability of her social system. During the time of the Hans the Jews entered China, settling in Ho-nan Province. Buddhism was also introduced about that time. The ancient texts of Confucius were "recovered" and engraved on stone; ink and paper were introduced; libraries were established; and famous scholars arose. The system of competitive examinations for entrance into the civil service became an institution.

The study of Chinese history and literature, although a fascinating one, is beset with difficulties, as there are no monumental stelae or tombs, to which when unearthed we can appeal, as in Egypt, to prove the antiquity of the Chinese race. There is no contemporary history of other nations, moreover, which might have helped investigations, for no one else but the Chinese themselves records anything about them.

Their ancient classics are unfortunately not trustworthy. The 'Books of History' and 'Poetry' are supposed to be their most ancient literature. But all the classical works were burned by order of the emperor in the year BC 213, with the exception of those treating of agriculture, medicine, divination, and the records of the Ch'in dynasty. So rigorous was the decree that even those who dared to speak about the classics of History and Poetry were to be put to death.

This decree was revoked by the second emperor of the Han dynasty in the year BC 191, and from that time it is said that every effort was made to bring the ancient books to light. In the 'History of the Anterior Han,' completed about AD 100, it is reported that "King Hsien of Hochien offered rewards of money and silk for well-written copies of ancient works, and among those secured by him were the 'Book of Rites,' 'Mencius,' Mao's edition of the 'Book of Poetry,' and the 'Spring and Autumn Annals.'"

The principal, and indeed oldest trustworthy authority for the account of the manner in which the 'Book of History' and the other classics were recovered, is the 'Historical Records' (Shih-chi) written by Ssuma Ch'ien about BC 90 from materials collected by his father. The account (chap, cxxi.) is as follows: "Fusheng (whose name means Hidden Birth), a native of Chinan, was at first a scholar of erudition under the Ch'in dynasty. In the reign of the Emperor Hsiao-wen (B.C. 179-157) it was desired that search should be made for any one who could reconstruct the Shangshu ('Book of History '), as the empire did not possess (a copy). It was then reported that Fusheng was a person able to reconstruct it. The emperor wished that he should be summoned (to Court); but at this time Fusheng was over ninety years of age and too old to travel, so instructions were given to the director of sacrifices, and Chao-ts'o went to fetch (the book). The emperor was memorialized to the effect that at the time of the burning of the books, Fusheng hid some books in a wall, after which time the great war began, and he wandered away.

"When the Han dynasty established itself, Fusheng looked for his books, but several tens of chapters were lost, and he only recovered twentynine chapters." Weihuang of the first century AD, says, " Fusheng, being old, could not speak correctly, and his language not being understood, his daughter was required to interpret for him to Chao-ts'o; but the Ch'i dialect was so different from that of An'hui, that Chao-ts'o lost two or three words out of every ten which she uttered. Getting the general gist, however, he worked up the meaning as best he could."

This account, as being the most marvellous, was the one most generally accepted by Chinese scholars. These twenty-nine - or, rather, thirty-four chapters, counting the subdivisions - constitute what is known as the modern text of the 'Book of History'; and the remaining twenty-four chapters, or the ancient text, were apparently recovered in quite as wonderful a way.

However complete the destruction of ancient books was, and from the difficulty of procuring a copy of the 'Book of History' it must have been, it is passing strange that the Board of Erudite Scholars, was not applied to, for in the memorial of Li-ssu urging that the books should be burnt, it is related that "the official histories, except the Ch'in records, should be all burnt, excepting those under the superintendence of the Board of Erudite Scholars, and those throughout the empire who dared to conceal the classics of 'Poetry' and 'History' or the 'Sayings of the Hundred Schools,' must be all brought before the various local civil and military authorities, in order that they (the books) may be burnt."

From the foregoing facts, then, it is not unnatural to suppose that the cupidity of the Chinese people led them to forge old works, and pretend that they had been discovered after several years' concealment, in order to secure the offered rewards. Ssuma Ch'ien and K'ung An-kuo seem to have been the arch-culprits in this respect, and no doubt to pose as the descendant of the great sage was a sufficient inducement for the latter's action. With regard to Confucius himself, it must be noted that it was not until the year A.D. I, that special honors were conferred on him ; and although he is credited with having edited the classics, it is not until 388 years after the recorded date of his death that this fact is reported.

Extreme skeptics therefore conclude that the several Chinese classical works were one and all forged during the Han dynasty. Sinologists are by no means agreed as to whether the personages mentioned in the classics are real or not, or when veritable history may be said to begin.

But the reign of the founder of the Han dynasty dates from BC 201 - eleven years were all which intervened between the order for the burning of the Books and the establishment of that Family which signalized itself by the care which it bestowed for their recovery; and from the issue of the edict against private individuals having copies in their keeping to its express abrogation by the Emperor Hwuy, there were only 22 years. Therefore, many conclude that the calamity inflicted on the ancient Books of China by the House of Ts'in could not have approached to anything like a complete destruction of them.