French Colonial Era, 1894-1960
The French largely ended the attempts of Malagasy rulers to stymie foreign influence by declaring a protectorate over the entire island in 1894. A protectorate over northwest Madagascar, based on treaties signed with the Sakalava during the 1840s, had existed since 1882. But Queen Ranavalona III refused to recognize the 1894 effort to subordinate her kingdom to French rule. As a result, a French expeditionary force occupied Antananarivo in September 1895. A wave of anti-foreign, anti-Christian rioting ensued. In 1896 France declared Madagascar a French colony and deported the queen and the prime minister—first to Reunion, then to Algeria.
Upon the permanent occupation of Madagascar in 1895, the French government, in response to an enquiry on the part of the United States, declared that the maintenance of the treaty of friendship and commerce, concluded between the United States and Madagascar, May 13, 1881, under which American consuls enjoyed certain rights of civil and criminal jurisdiction, would be inconsistent with the new order of things created by the occupation. At the same time assurance was given that the conventions applicable to the government and citizens of the United States in France or French possessions would be extended to the Island. After the passage of the law for the formal annexation of the Island as a French colony, the treaties previously existing between Madagascar and foreign countries were declared to be at an end, and the system of conventions in force in French colonies to be substituted therefor.
Under the old regime, chiefs and high oflicials always expected to receive presents, not as bribes but as a consequence of the majority having no fixed salary. The whole population were formerly obliged to work for the sovereign, gratis, whenever required to do so. This was altered by the French to 30 days’ Government work in each year, gratis. Domestic slavery had been abolished in 1896, and in January, 1901, the Whole system of forced labor was finally abolished.
A Consultative Council of Administration was established at Antananarivo. The Colony was not represented in the French Parliament, nor has it any elective assembly. The administrative system is based on the autonomy of the different races. The administrators appoint as local governors and chiefs of districts usually those who had been chosen by popular vote. Natives ere employed to a large extent in subordinate positions both in the civil and military administration.
The local revenue of Madagascar is derived chiefly from direct taxation (including a poll tax and taxes on land and houses), from customs and other indirect taxes, from colonial lands, from posts and telegraphs, markets, and miscellaneous sources, and from subventions granted by France. The chief branches of expenditure are general administration, public works, the post office, and the public debt. For 1915 the local budget showed revenue of 1,507,839l., and an expenditure of the same amount. In 1914 the budget balanced at 1,440,717l. The colony had in the two decades since 1897 contracted debt to the amount of 4,200,000£ at the average yearly rate of interest of 3 percent. Of this debt the amount outstanding was on Jan. 1, 1912, 98,220,000 francs. The loans were made for the purpose of public works or for the conversion of loans for that purpose. The troops in Madagascar (including the forces at Diego-Suarez) consisted of 2,411 Europeans, and 6,376 natives. The police and militia were maintained on the local budget.
In 1896, on the completion of the French occupation of the Island, the Malagasy system of land tenure was modified; foreigners were permitted to acquire land, and registration of land was begun. Government lands, urban or non-urban, are let or sold to private persons, or to companies for agri‘ culture, pastnrage, or mining. At the close of the year 1911 there were registered in Madagascar 10,740 estates (mom'iétés immatm'maléas), having an area of 1,152,000 acres, and an estimated value of 2,400,000l. In 1912 there were delivered 314 titles, representing about 50,000 acres, and 209 leases of land, measuring 750,000 acres. During the same period 25 free concessions of land were granted for 2,500 acres, and 99 titles purchased covering 21,700 acres.
Cattle breeding and agriculture are the chief occupations of the people; there were in 1913, 5,330,200 cattle in the island ; in 1911 there were 2,125 horses, asses, and mules ; 246,955 sheep (rough, native breed) 98,421 goats, and 407,732 pigs. The area under cultivation at the beginning of 1913 was estimated at 2,180,000 acres. The chief products were sugar, coffee, manioc, cotton, cacao, vanilla, tobacco, butter beans, cloves, mulberry trees, and rubber trees. Sericulture is encouraged. The forests abound with many valuable woods, while caoutchouc, gums, resins, plants for textile, tanning, dyeing, and medicinal purposes abound. The principal article at present produced in the island is caoutchouc, which is exported to London, Hamburg, and Marseilles. Silk and cotton weaving are carried on, and the manufacture of textures from the raphia palm fibre, and of metal work. Works for the preparation of sugar, rice, soap, beer, &c., were undertaken by Europeans.
Of minerals, gold, iron, copper, lead, silver, zinc, antimony, manganese, nickel, sulphur, graphite, lignite (March, 1912) and also coal have been found. Mining is carried on under the Decree of May 23, 1907. In 1914, metals and minerals were produced as follows: gold, 52,228 ozs.; graphite, 7,749 tons; rock crystal, 36 tons; and corundum, 556 tons. The output of precious stones in 1912, was 399,155 grammes.
Canoes propelled by paddles and formed from the hollowed trunks of trees are still employed on the rivers; the largest are 40 feet long and nearly 3 feet wide and deep. In the southeastern part of the island rafts made of the papyrus are used for crossing rivers, but at the rivers’ mouths, and for going off to vessels, boats 30 feet long and '8 feet beam, propelled by large oars, and capable of carrying 50 people, are used; they are built of planks, fastened together by cord made of palm fiber, strips of bamboo being used to calk the seams. On the northwestern'coasts canoes with outriggers, 5 feet long on each side, are much used and skillfully managed; they are 26 feet in length and only 25 inches wide, with a raised platform in the center; with a stiff breeze, they will sail 12 miles an hour.
Under the Hova rule, there was a total absence of wheeled traffic or roads throughout the island, the natives: having an idea that reads would assist invaders; therefore there were foot tracks only, and this is still the case over the greater part of the island, so that travelers have still to be carried in open palanquins, and merchandise or goods for most parts in the interior have still to be borne on the shoulders of porters, many of whom have wonderful powers of endurance and have been known to travel 200 miles in four days over very rough, mountainous country. These primitive methods have, however, gave way to modern conveniences. The Government constructed several excellent roads, and there were in 1911 1,100 miles of surfaced ["metalled"] roads in Madagascar. There was a fortnightly service of motor cars for transport of mails and passengers between Antananarivo and Miarinarivo, the capital of the Province of Itasi, 61 miles; and a service—twice weekly—between Antananarivo and Ambositra, the capital of the Province of that name, a distance of 166 miles; also a monthly service between Antananarivo and Maevatanana, 214 miles.
The population of Madagascar, according to the census of June, 1911, amounted to 3,199,465, of whom 12,580 were Europeans or assimilated, 21,065 Asiatics or Africans, and the rest natives. Madagascar is now divided for administrative purposes into 20 civil provinces and 3 military districts.
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