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Northern Cheyenne Campaign - 1878-79

The decade following the Civil War brought the nation’s focus back to the West (Wyoming, Montana, and Dakota Territories) because of gold discoveries, the Homestead Act of 1862 and the coming the transcontinental railroads. With renewed attention to this region came inevitable conflict. The Sioux, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho clashed with the U.S. military and civilians over the encroachment of this region.

A major flaw in the treaty process, evident in the Fort Laramie treaties of 1851 and 1868, was the government’s failure to comprehend that Indian leaders who signed the treaties often lacked authority to represent kinsmen in other bands who rejected the instruments. Eventually, when government efforts failed to enforce compliance from tribesmen who were not parties to the accords, the army was called in to force their acquiescence. By and large, it was the establishment of reservations by the treaties, and the Indian’s resistance to settlement on them, that proved the paramount reason for the conflict with the army and for the military campaigns that followed.

Ironically, the “Peace Policy” fostered during the administration of Ulysses S. Grant, wherein the government promoted involvement in Indian administration by religious organizations, clashed starkly with the brutality of the army’s forceful prosecution of the tribes, ensuring altogether vague prospects for peace on the frontier.

The Sand Creek Massacre of 1864, perpetuated by U.S. volunteer troops from Colorado against a village of Southern Cheyennes and Arapahos under the Cheyenne peace chief, Black Kettle. Responding to the demands of settlers, these troops, operating under Colonel John M. Chivington, assaulted a supposedly protected encampment and killed at least 160 people, then defiled their remains and destroyed their property. Although Sand Creek was quickly recognized as a national disgrace, it nonetheless mobilized the plains tribes and sent Sioux and Cheyenne warriors on an avenging rampage in Colorado, Wyoming, Kansas, and Nebraska that further exacerbated the tone of intolerance between Indians and whites. The Sand Creek massacre, noted Paul Fees, “became a central story to modern Cheyenne culture as well as a symbol of American injustice and brutality toward Indian people.”

The emigrant presence on the Northern Plains increased in the 1860s with establishment of the Bozeman Trail leading from the Oregon Trail northwest to the gold fields of southwestern Montana Territory. When Lakotas and Cheyennes again resisted the influx of travelers through their hunting grounds, the government raised and occupied army posts along the Bozeman in Wyoming (then part of Dakota Territory) and Montana, inciting major conflict with the tribes. Following several well-publicized engagements – including the annihilation by Sioux and Cheyennes of Captain William J. Fetterman and his command near Fort Phil Kearny, Wyoming – the government abandoned the region altogether, ending the socalled Red Cloud War and conceding, at least momentarily, native suzerainty there.

The Powder River Fight, March 17, 1876 - Colonel Joseph J. Reynolds’s fight with Old Bear and Two Moon’s Northern Cheyenne village - was significant in that it was the first major fight that ignited the war with the non-reservation Sioux and Northern Cheyenne, also known as the Great Sioux War. Furthermore, this event drove many of the Northern Cheyenne into the camp of Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse’s non-reservation Sioux band.

Colonel Reynolds with six companies of the 2nd and 3rd U.S. Cavalry attacked the Northern Cheyenne village under the leadership of Old Bear and Two Moon. Colonel Reynolds’s men thought they had struck Crazy Horse’s encampment, instead they attacked Old Bear’s and Two Moon’s Northern Cheyenne camp. Colonel Reynolds’s force succeeded in taking the village and capturing a significant number of horses, but failed to capture the women and children and subsequently failed to force the subjugation of their people. Once the women and children were safely concealed, the Northern Cheyenne and a few Oglala Sioux warriors regained the initiative and succeeded in occupying key terrain and kept up a steady and heated harassment of the U.S. Military force.

After the extensive surrenders in 1877 of the hostile Northern Cheyennes, in the Departments of Dakota and the Platte, a number were sent under guard to the Cheyenne and Arapaho Agency, at Fort Reno, Indian Territory, on 8 August 1877. Subsequent to that date other small parties surrendered and some died, so that on 1 July 1878, the number of Northern Cheyennes, at Fort Reno amounted to more than 940. An attempt had been made by General Pope, commending the Department of the Missouri, to disarm and dismount these Indians, so as to place them on the same footing with the Southern Cheyennes, but as it was found this could not be done without violation of the conditions of their surrender, they were permitted to retain their arms and ponies.

A large part of the Northern Cheyennes found friends among the Southern Cheyennes, mixed with them, and joined the various bands. About one-third of the Northern Cheyennes, however, under the leadership of "Dull Knife," "Wild Hog," "Little Wolf," and others, comprising about 375 Indians, remained together and would not affiliate with the Southern Cheyennes. Dissatisfied with life at their new agency, they determined to break away, move north, and rejoin their friends in the country where they formerly lived. Their intention to escape had long been suspected and their movements were consequently watched by the troops, but by abandoning their lodges, which they left standing, about 89 warriors, and slightly less than 250 women and children escaped from the agency on 9 September 1877.

Although troops were dispatched from several posts to intercept and return them to the agency, the Indiana eluded their pursuers and continued north raiding settlements for stock and committing other depredations. On 21 September a minor skirmish took place between the Indians and Army troops assisted by citizens. Six days later, Colonel Lewis' command overtook the Cheyennes on "Punished Woman's Fork" of the Smoky Hill River, where the Indians were found very strong entrenched and waiting for the troops. Colonel Lewis attacked them at once and was mortally wounded while leading the assault. In the clash, 3 enlisted men were wounded, one Indian killed; 62 head of stock were captured.

In spite of all precautions, the Cheyennes managed to escape and continue north. Two Cheyennes who had been taken prisoner by cowboys told authorities the fugitives had intended to reach the Cheyennes, supposed to be at Fort Keogh, Montana, where, if permitted to stay, they would surrender, otherwise they would try to join Sitting Bull, who still remained in Canada. The prisoners also said that the escaping Cheyennes had lost 15 killed in the various fights subsequent to their escape from Fort Reno.

On 23 October 1878, two troops of the 3d Cavalry captured 149 of the Cheyennes and 140 head of stock. "Dull Knife," "Old Crow," and "Wild Hog" were among the prisoners. Their ponies were taken away, together with such arms as could be found, but the prisoners said they would die rather than be taken back to Indian Territory. "Little Wolf" and some of his followers escaped and, in January 1879, additional members of the tripe escaped to join "Little Wolf" after a skirmish with troops near Fort Robinson.

In 1878, following their own incarceration in the Indian Territory in the aftermath of the Great Sioux War, many of the Northern Cheyennes, beset with disease and starvation, started for their Montana homeland under Chiefs Morning Star (Dull Knife) and Little Wolf. En route through Kansas, the Indians combatted troops and raided white settlements. In Nebraska, the soldiers forced the surrender of the group under Morning Star, while those with Little Wolf managed to elude the pursuit and eventually continued north. Finally incarcerated without food in a heatless barrack at Fort Robinson pending their return south, Morning Star’s people broke out of their prison in January 1879 and were pursued over two weeks by soldiers. Many died in the conflict, while those who survived turned themselves in at the post.

Some of the escaping Cheyennes strongly positioned on some cliffs were intercepted, but again they escaped. However, two days later they were again located near the telegraph line from Fort Robinson to Hat Creek, where they were entrenched in a gully. Refusing to surrender, they were immediately attacked and the entire party either killed or captured. "Dull Knife" their leader was among those killed. On 25 March 1879 "Little Wolf" and his band were overtaken near Box Elder Creek by a force made up of two troops of Cavalry, a detachment of Infantry, a field gun, and some Indian scouts. The Indians were pursuaded to surrender without fighting and gave up all their arms and about 250 ponies, and marched with the troops to Fort Keogh. The band numbered 33 men, 43 squaws, and 38 children.

Influenced by public opinion, the government eventually allowed these people to join Little Wolf’s followers on a reservation established for them in Montana. This event, with others, signified the failure of the government’s forced removal policy, as well as the leadership under desperate conditions of men like Morning Star and Little Wolf.