Military

Marine Air-Ground Task Force Aviation: The Use Of Integrated and

Combined Combat Arms in Maneuver Warfare

 

CSC 1995

 

SUBJECT AREA - Warfighting

 

 

 

United States Marine Corps

Command and Staff College

Marine Corps University

Marine Corps Combat Development Command

Quantico, Virginia 22134-5068

 

Master of Military Studies

AY 1994-1995

 

Title: Marine Air-Ground Task Force Aviation:

The Use of Integrated and Combined Combat

Arms in Maneuver Warfare

 

1st Mentor: Dr. H. W. Gholson

 

2d Mentor: LtCol D. A. Driscoll, USMC

 

3d Reader: LtCol T. V. Wolf, USMC

 

 

 

Author: Major R. M. Rayfield, USMC

CG 10

 

 

 

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

 

 

Title: Marine Air-Ground Task Force Aviation: The Use of Integrated and Combined

 

Combat Arms in Maneuver Warfare

 

 

 

Author: Major Richard M. Rayfield, United States Marine Corps

 

 

 

Thesis: To analyze the evolution of Marine aviation from a supporting arm to an

 

integrated combined arm supporting the Marine Air-Ground Task Force (MAGTF) in

 

order to identify its use as a combat arm applying maneuver warfare.

 

 

 

Background: The Marine Corps officially adopted maneuver warfare as its warfighting

 

philosophy with the publication of FMFM 1, Warfighting, in March 1989. FMFM 1

 

generated much discussion as to the merits of maneuver warfare, including its application

 

to the aviation combat element (ACE) of the MAGTF. Numerous papers, books, and

 

articles expounded on the idea of the ACE as a maneuver element, many appearing in the

 

Marine Corps Gazette. A notable proponent of maneuver warfare was William S. Lind.

 

Official Marine Corps documents and doctrinal publications began to emerge highlighting

 

this view of Marine aviation as a player in maneuver warfare.

 

 

 

In the late 1980s and early 1990s, the discussion of the ACE as a maneuver element

 

expanded to that of the ACE as a combat arm, supporting the entire MAGTF. This

 

concept contradicted the traditional view of Marine aviation as a supporting arm of the

 

ground combat element. The concept of the ACE supporting the entire MAGTF was

 

furthered by the acceptance of the MAGTF, specifically the Marine expeditionary force

 

(MEF), as the warfighting organization of the Marine Corps. The MEF's focus was

 

directed toward the operational level of war, with the ACE constituting but one combat

 

arm in the MEF commander's "toolbox." Again, numerous papers and articles put forth

 

the idea of the ACE as a combat arm supporting the MAGTF. Official Marine Corps

 

documents and doctrinal publications adhering to this concept appeared as early as 1989.

 

 

 

Despite much of the recent discussion of maneuver warfare and the role of Marine

 

aviation within this warfighting philosophy, Marines have practiced much of it for years.

 

Many of the tenets of maneuver warfare can be identified as long ago as the 1920s, in

 

Nicaragua. Official Marine Corps publications, such as the Tentative Manual for Landing

 

Operations (1935); Marine Aviation: General, 1940; and NAVMC 2890, Small Wars

 

Manual, outline the same principles espoused by our current maneuver warfare doctrine.

 

A brief study of historical applications, from World War I to Somalia, highlights successful

 

and unsuccessful use of aviation that the Marine Corps can learn from and build upon.

 

 

 

Literature Review: Initial research centered on a review of existing and emerging joint

 

and Marine Corps doctrinal manuals. Joint doctrine review focused primarily on Joint Pub

 

3-0, Doctrine for Joint Operations, and Joint Pub 3-07 (Draft), Joint Doctrine for

 

Military Operations Other Than War. The review of Marine doctrine encompassed both

 

Fleet Marine Force Manuals (FMFMs) and Fleet Marine Force Reference Publications

 

(FMFRPs). Many historical accounts of Marine Corps operations have been republished

 

as FMFRPs. Key publications included FMFM 1; FMFM 1-1, Campaigning; the FMFM

 

5 series of Marine aviation publications; FMFM 6 (Final Draft), Ground Combat

 

Operations; FMFRP 12-26, Marine Aviation: General, 1940; and FMFRP 12-34, History

 

of the Marine Corps Operations in World War II.

 

 

Other Marine Corps sources proved invaluable. The written documents included the

 

Marine Corps Long-Range Plan (MLRP) (July 1989), the MAGTF Master Plan (MMP)

 

(July 1991 and July 1993), and a report submitted by Major General James M. Myatt,

 

USMC to the Commission on Roles and Missions of the Armed Forces. A telephone

 

interview with Colonel Michael M. Kurth, USMC provided great insight into the use of

 

Marine aviation in the Persian Gulf war.

 

 

 

A search of Defense Technical Information Center (DTIC) holdings identified many

 

sources. These sources primarily were monographs, papers and theses submitted by

 

students at other US armed forces schools. They proved especially useful in the

 

discussion of operations other than war.

 

 

 

Published books provided an excellent source of material, particularly in the areas

 

of maneuver warfare application and historical example. Notable sources on maneuver

 

warfare application included William S. Lind's Maneuver Warfare Handbook and Martin

 

van Creveld's Air Power and Maneuver Warfare. Some superb historical examples were

 

provided by Robert Sherrod's History of Marine Corps Aviation in World War II, Peter

 

Mersky's US. Marine Corps Aviation: 1912 to the Present, and the accounts of Allied

 

operations in Italy in 1944.

 

 

 

Analysis: This analysis revealed an abundance of information regarding the use of Marine

 

aviation, past and present, and its applicability to maneuver warfare. It highlighted

 

numerous examples of aviation's successful and unsuccessful use on the battlefield.

 

Research identified numerous articles and papers dealing with the ACE and maneuver

 

warfare. Nothing existed to tie these concepts into a meaningful document for practical

 

use.

 

 

 

Analysis further highlighted the void in Marine Corps doctrine dealing with Marine

 

aviation and maneuver warfare. Since the publication of FMFM 1, officially tying the

 

Marine Corps to maneuver warfare, no corresponding discussion of the ACE has been

 

published. Doctrine Division, Marine Corps Combat Development Command, Quantico,

 

Virginia, has as one of its tasks to develop FMFM 5, Marine Air-Ground Task Force

 

Aviation. The focus of this masters paper and the desired focus of FMFM 5 were closely

 

related.

 

 

 

Three proposed courses of action presented themselves: produce a standard masters

 

thesis, do nothing, or produce a draft doctrinal manual.

 

 

            1.            Do Nothing. Doing nothing obviously does not benefit anyone.

 

 

            2.            Standard Masters Thesis. A standard masters thesis, although valuable,

 

                            would be limited in its practical use. Its availability to users would be

 

                           limited, and it would bear no official Marine Corps sanction.

 

 

            3.            Draft Doctrinal Manual. A doctrine manual provides prescriptive

 

                        information on warfighting and is distributed throughout the Marine

                       

                        Corps. It is an official Marine Corps publication, governed by

                       

                        MCO 5600.20M and MCBul 5600. This order and bulletin also outline

                       

                        the specific procedures for development, publication, and review of

                       

                        Marine Corps doctrinal manuals. The integration of the research required

                       

                        for this paper into the development of the capstone manual for Marine

                       

                        Aviation, FMFM 5, Marine Air-Ground Task Force Aviation, would

                       

                        provide immediate benefit to the operating forces of the Marine Corps.

                       

                        (See attached Director, Doctrine Division ltr 5600/C42 of 26 Oct 94.)

 

 

 

Recommendation: The recommended course of action was the integration of masters

 

research with the development of a draft doctrine manual. Input during the developmental

 

stage and review of the initial draft was provided by a ground combat arms officer student,

 

adding to the integrated combined arms focus of this book. It is recommended that this

 

book be approved by Command and Staff College and forwarded to Doctrine Division,

 

MCCDC. Doctrine Division can then prepare the draft for approval by CG, MCCDC and

 

distribution to the Marine Corps as FMFM 5 (Draft), Marine Air-Ground Task Force

 

Aviation.

 

 

 

FMFM 5 (Draft), Marine Air-Ground Task Force Aviation, discusses how to think about

 

Marine aviation--as a combat arm supporting the MAGTF, applying integrated combined

 

arms concepts to maneuver warfare. The FMFM 5 (Draft) is the capstone manual for

 

Marine Aviation, and is written in a style and format similar to that of FMFM 1.

 

 

 

Special Note.  I am especially indebted to the personnel of Doctrine Division, Marine

 

Corps Combat Development Command, Quantico, Virginia. The Director of Doctrine

 

Division, the Aviation Doctrine Branch, the Ground Doctrine Branch, and the Doctrine

 

Division Terminologist were particularly helpful and supportive. Their guidance and

 

assistance in the source material, format, compatibility with existing and emerging

 

doctrine, and content of this draft doctrine manual was invaluable.

 

 

 

                                                UNITED STATES MARINE CORPS

                                                  Doctrine Division C 42

                                    Marine Corps Combat Development Command

                                        2042 Broadway Street, Suite 2 10

                                                Quantico, Virginia 22134-5021

 

                                                                                                                                                5600

                                                                                                                                                C 42

                                                                                                                                                26 Oct 94

 

From:            Director, Doctrine Division

To:            Director, Marine Corps Command and Staff College (Attn: Dr H. W. Gholson

            and LtCol D. A. Driscoll, USMC)

 

Subj:            BENEFIT OF STUDENT RESEARCH IN DEVELOPMENT OF DOCTRINAL

            MANUAL

 

Ref:  (a) Master of Military Studies Paper Proposal submitted by Maj R. M. Rayfield,

                USMC to Command and Staff College, AY 94-95

      (b) MCO 5600.20M

      (c) MCBul 5600

 

1. Reference (a) is a Master of Military Studies (MMS) Paper Proposal by Maj Rayfield.

The proposed topic concerns the evolution of Marine Aviation from a supporting arm to

a combat arm. The topic further includes the application of Marine Aviation in

maneuver warfare as the aviation combat element (ACE) of the Marine air-ground task

force (MAGTF). Maj Rayfield lists his 1st Mentor as Dr H. W. Gholson and his 2d

Mentor as LtCol D. A- Driscoll, USMC.

 

2. Doctrine Division is responsible for doctrine development for the Marine Corps. The

development approval, publication, and review process for this doctrine is outlined in

references (b) and (c). Reference (c) also includes specific manuals under development.

Because of Maj Rayfield's prior assignment to Doctrine Division, he is thoroughly

familiar with the doctrine development process and procedures.

 

3. Per reference (c), one of the manuals to be developed is Fleet Marine Force Manual

(FMFM) 5, Marine Air-Ground Task Force Aviation. FMFM 5 will be the capstone

manual for Marine Aviation that will parallel and complement FMFM 1, Warfighting.

The desired focus of FMFM 5 and Maj Rayfield's MMS proposal are closely related. His

efforts would speed the doctrine development and approval process for FMFM 5.

 

4. Maj Rayfield's research and assistance in development of FMFM 5, while

simultaneously satisfying the MMS requirements of Command and Staff College, would

be of great benefit to Doctrine Division and the Marine Corps.

 

 

                                       D. R. MIRRA

                                       LtCol USMC

 

 

 

 

 

                                                                                                                                                FMFM 5

                                                                                                                                                DRAFT

 

 

                                                            Marine Air-Ground Task Force

 

                                                                             Aviation

 

 

 

                                                                            ***(TIF)***

 

 

 

                                                                        U.S. Marine Corps

 

                                                                                                                                                PCN 139 000150 00

 

 

 

 

                                                  DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVY

                                    Headquarters United States Marine Corps

                                                Washington, D.C. 20380-0001

 

                                                                                                                                    18 April 1995

 

 

 

                                                                        FOREWORD

 

"Marine aviation units are an integral element of an air-ground combat system. They

 

are not merely joined at the top when the time comes to fight. They are fully integrated

 

from top to bottom, and they train that way full-time."1

 

 

 

                                                                                                -- General Carl E. Mundy, Jr., USMC

 

 

"It is not so much the mode of formation as the proper combined use of the different

 

arms which will ensure victory."2

 

 

                                                                                                                                    -- Henri Jomini

 

 

This book describes the Marine Corps doctrine for using aviation. It provides a common

 

ground for understanding aviation and how the Marine Air-Ground Task Force (MAGTF)

 

operationally and tactically exploits aviation's capabilities within the battlespace.

 

 

 

We direct every phrase in these pages towards one goal--success in war. To achieve

 

victory, the MAGTF must focus all efforts to this end. This requires a common

 

understanding of tactics, techniques, and procedures. Maneuver warfare provides the

 

basis for the Marine Corps' warfighting doctrine. Aviation forces, like the other elements

 

of the MAGTF, conduct operations using this doctrine. This book applies maneuver

 

warfare to MAGTF aviation.

 

 

 

The inescapable lesson of history--and the theme of this book--demands the integration

 

of aviation with other combat arms. The Marine Corps uses aviation as an integral part of

 

our naval expeditionary air-ground team. As part of this combined-arms team, aviation

 

extends and expands the MAGTF's warfighting power. This unique combined-arms

 

capability remains the strength and hallmark of the MAGTF.

 

 

 

This book is descriptive rather than prescriptive in nature; it requires judgment in

 

application. It does not discuss aircraft tactics, the organization of Marine aviation, how

 

to conduct a helicopterborne operation, or how to attack a target. This book focuses on

 

how to think about MAGTF aviation--as a combat arm, supporting the MAGTF, applying

 

maneuver warfare.

 

 

 

Recommendations for improving this publication are encouraged from commands as well

 

as from individuals. Forward suggestions using the User Suggestion Form format to--

 

            Commanding General

            Doctrine Division (C 423)

            Marine Corps Combat Development Command

            2042 Broadway Street, Suite 205

            Quantico, Virginia 22134-5021

 

  BY DIRECTION OF THE COMMANDANT OF THE MARINE CORPS

 

 

 

                                                                                                                        C. E. WILHELM

                                                                                                   Lieutenant General, U.S. Marine Corps

                                                                                                                Commanding General

                                                                                                 Marine Corps Combat Development Command

                                                                                                                        Quantico, Virginia

 

DISTRIBUTION: PCN 139 000150 00

 

 

 

 

                    MARINE AIR-GROUND TASK FORCE AVIATION

 

                              Table of Contents

 

 

Chapter 1.             Aviation and the Marine Corps

 

Forged in Combat--Combined Arms--The Marine Air-Ground Task Force

 

Chapter 2.             Aviation and Maneuver Warfare

 

To Achieve a Decision--Aviation at the Operational Level-

Tactical-Operational Interaction--Focus and Speed--Surprise, Unpredictability, and

Boldness--Lethality and Effectiveness

 

Chapter 3.             Combat Operations

 

To Provide Firepower--To Provide Mobility--To Create Conditions for Success--To

Exploit Enemy Vulnerabilities--For Exploitation and Pursuit--As a Reserve

 

Chapter 4.             Operations Other Than War

 

Humanitarian Assistance--Peacekeeping--The Combat Link

 

Conclusion

 

Notes

 

Appendix A.            Policy for Command and Control of USMC TACAIR

                        in Sustained Operations Ashore

 

Appendix B.            Glossary

 

 

 

                                                                        Chapter 1

 

 

                                                  Aviation and the Marine Corps

 

 

 

"Today [aviation] is the dominant factor in war. It may not win a war by itself alone,

 

but without it no major war can be won."1

 

 

 

                                                          --Admiral Arthur Radford, USN

 

 

"That [aviation] cannot win a war without major efforts of ground troops is perfectly

 

apparent, since, in spite of our vast air superiority, the enemy was able to move a sizable

 

force and launch and support a serious counter-offensive well towards the end of the

 

war."2

 

 

                                                          -- Major General Raymond S. McLain, USA

 

To achieve success, the Marine Corps integrates aviation with all forms of combat power.

  

Aviation is a powerful combat force in modem warfare.

 

Its evolution as a viable instrument of war begins in the early 20th century. Marine

 

aviation traces its origin and purpose to 22 May 1912, when First Lieutenant Alfred A.

 

Cunningham reported to the naval aviation training camp at Annapolis, Maryland.3 The

 

purpose of Marine aviation today parallels that envisioned in 1912. We continue to

 

maintain Marine aviation's focus on one goal--to achieve success. We achieve this

 

success by integrating aviation with all other forms of combat power. The first

 

demonstration of this integration occurs in January 1914.4

 

 

 

We operate under the concept that aviation is a complementary part of the larger whole.

 

In World War II, aviation plays a major role in helping Marines maintain our tenuous hold

 

on Guadalcanal. Marine aviation provides air cover, flank protection, and reconnaissance

 

to the Army forces (known as the "flying column") that liberate Manila in the Philippines.

 

In Korea, Marine aviation prevents the collapse of the Pusan Perimeter and supports the

 

Inchon landing. The concept of aviation as a complementary part of the larger whole

 

continues to serve us well, evidenced by Desert Storm and continuing operations in

 

southwest Asia.

 

 

 

FORGED IN COMBAT

 

 

 

Marines quickly grasp the great benefit that aviation might provide in combat. Terrain,

 

vegetation, or man-made structures fail to affect an airplane's mobility as they affect

 

ground-surface movement. Aircraft allow rapid movement above these obstacles that

 

impede forces on the ground. World War I provides the first opportunity to employ

 

Marine aviation in combat, but participation proves limited.5 Marine aircraft provide

 

support to Marine forces operating in Haiti and Santo Domingo beginning in 1919, to

 

include beginning to practice dive bombing, with less than decisive results.6 It is not until

 

1927, in Nicaragua, that the full potential of the Marine Corps' air arm begins to emerge.7

 

 

 

On 15 July 1927, a force of around 500 Sandinistas, led by Agosto Sandino, attack the

 

Marine garrison at Ocotal, Nicaragua. The 38 Marines and 49 Nicaraguan National

 

Guardsmen repulse the initial attack. At dawn the beleaguered garrison refuses to

 

surrender and Sandino's men resume their assault. During the attack on 16 July, two

 

aircraft from Major Ross "Rusty" Rowell's VO-7M arrive over Ocotal by chance. One

 

pilot lands to get a report on the situation while the other strafes the rebels. After

 

expending their ammunition, the pilots fly 125 miles to Managua, Nicaragua to report to

 

Major Rowell. Major Rowell responds to the crisis by leading his five available DH-4B

 

and 02B-1 aircraft to the besieged garrison's defense. Forming in a column, the flight

 

dive bombs and strafes the attacking rebels. This first organized dive bombing attack and

 

first low-altitude attack in support of ground troops8 breaks up the rebel attack, causing

 

an estimated 200 Sandinista casualties.

 

 

On 30 December 1927, Sandinistas ambush two Marine columns. Although aircraft

 

twice drop medicine to aid the wounded Marines, it becomes necessary to fly the wounded

 

to safety to save their lives. Ten times from 6 to 8 January 1928 Lieutenant Christian

 

Schilt lands on a hand-made landing strip (the early use of an expeditionary airfield or

 

forward operating base), under fire, to evacuate the 18 wounded Marines. Lieutenant

 

Schilt earns the Medal of Honor for what the citation calls his "almost superhuman skill."

 

 

 

Marine experimentation with aviation in Nicaragua does not stop with close air support

 

and air evacuation. On 10 January 1928, three Fokker trimotor aircraft make military

 

history by transporting 9,564 pounds of cargo. With the addition of more and larger

 

aircraft, Marine aviation's contribution to logistical support continues to increase. During

 

one week, Marine aviators haul over 68,000 pounds of cargo.

 

 

 

In January 1928, Marines provide air reconnaissance and preliminary bombing and strafing

 

attacks prior to a major Marine-National Guard attack on Sandino's mountain-top

 

stronghold of El Chipote. On 14 January 1928, Major Rowell leads a four plane flight on

 

a strike in advance of a major ground attack against San Albino, Nicaragua. These

 

missions essentially qualify as deep air support.

 

 

Thus in Nicaragua, Marines begin to employ many concepts of Marine aviation, including

 

air reconnaissance, close air support, deep air support, air logistical support, and air

 

evacuation. Marine aviation's functions and expeditionary nature start to emerge, forged

 

in combat. Even while exploring its complete possibilities, Marines understand that

 

aviation is useless if employed alone. We cannot use aviation or think of it as an end unto

 

itself.  To do so invites failure. Aviation succeeds when it is part of the combat power the

 

commander uses to achieve a decision. Integration of aviation with all other forms of

 

combat power provides the most effective use of aviation.

 

 

 

COMBINED ARMS

 

 

Combined arms put the enemy in a dilemma-any action he takes to counteract one threat makes

 

him vulnerable to another.

 

Combined arms is a method of fighting.  Maneuver warfare employs fire support systems not as

 

just supporting arms, but as combined arms.9 Combined arms strikes the enemy with two or more

 

arms simultaneously in such a way that whatever course he takes means devastation. We use

 

combined arms to create a dilemma for the enemy--to place him in a situation where whatever

 

action he takes to avoid one "arm" opens him up to another. Any action we take likely provokes an

 

enemy reaction. We design our actions so that any enemy reaction proves equally

 

disastrous. The "arms" we use to create a dilemma go beyond use of the firepower means

 

of aviation, artillery, and infantry. We create combined arms effects using movement of

 

forces, sustainment capability, deception, electronic warfare, and psychological operations.

 

 

 

Law provides the basis for the Marine Corps' use of combined arms. United States Code,

 

1988, Volume III, Title 10 - Armed Forces, Chapter 507, Section 5063 states:

 

 

            The Marine Corps shall be organized, trained, and equipped to provide

 

            fleet marine forces of combined arms, together with supporting air

 

            components, for service with the fleet.10

 

 

 

The Marine Corps uses combined arms at the tactical and operational level of war. Major

 

Rowell and his fellow aviators' air attacks against the rebels at Ocotal, Nicaragua on 16

 

July 1927 likely provide the first example of the use of Marine air-ground combined

 

arms.11 Aviation allows the commander to present the enemy with tactical and operational

 

dilemmas. The commander combines many tactical dilemmas to produce an operational

 

dilemma for the enemy force as a whole.

 

 

 

Tactically, a commander pins down the enemy with direct and indirect fire weapons,

 

making him vulnerable to close air support. If the enemy moves to escape the air attacks,

 

he comes under direct and indirect fire. We link the combined arms effects of individual

 

units to produce a larger MAGTF combined arms effect.

 

 

 

Operationally, a commander uses aviation to isolate an enemy force from reinforcements

 

or supplies. He can accomplish this by interdicting enemy lines of communications. The

 

commander then strikes the isolated enemy force to shape the battlespace for future

 

operations. The enemy must either fight and face irreplaceable losses or abandon the field

 

and come under aviation and artillery attack.

 

 

 

THE MARINE AIR-GROUND TASK FORCE

 

The separate elements of the MAGTF are not viable combat forces.  As an integrated air-ground-

 

logistics force, the MAGTF provides a combined arms team capable of accomplishing assigned

 

tasks with little to no external support. 

 

 

The Marine Air-Ground Task Force (MAGTF) is the Marine Corps' way to organize for combat.

 

The Marine expeditionary force serves as the Marine Corps' primary warfighting organization.

 

Marine Corps Forces Atlantic and Pacific provide MAGTFs, as part of the Marine component, to

 

theater and joint force commanders. The MAGTF commander task-organizes his MAGTF based on

 

his assigned mission and the theater, joint force, or naval expeditionary force commander's

 

operational requirement or task and intent. The size and composition of the MAGTF varies

 

depending on the mission. All MAGTFs, regardless of size, contain a command element, a ground

 

combat element, an aviation combat element, and a combat service support element.12 The

 

separate elements of a MAGTF by themselves are not viable combat forces. The MAGTF provides

 

the theater, joint force, or naval expeditionary force commander with a self-sustaining,

 

integrated air-ground combined-arms team capable of accomplishing assigned tasks.

 

 

 

The MAGTF offers unique capabilities, limitations, and organizational requirements.

 

Using maneuver warfare, the MAGTF achieves decisive results with forces of moderate

 

size. These decisive results reflect the distinct nature of the aviation combat element and

 

the combat power it brings as part of the MAGTF. This aviation combat power must

 

remain part of the MAGTF, whether the MAGTF functions as part of a naval

 

expeditionary force or a larger joint/combined force. The MAGTF commander advises

 

higher headquarters on the effective use of the MAGTF. Without the MAGTF

 

commander's participation and input, the risk of improper strategic, operational, and

 

tactical employment of the force exists.

 

 

 

            The Aviation Combat Element

 

The ACE is specifically organized, trained, and equipped to support the MAGTF.

 

 

The size and composition of the aviation  combat element (ACE) reflects the MAGTF commander's

 

mission. The ACE commander task-organizes the aviation assets of the MAGTF based on the tasks

 

assigned to the MAGTF and the ACE and the MAGTF commander's intent. The MAGTF

 

commander ensures that the task organization of the ACE supports his vision for success.

 

The mission of Marine aviation traditionally focuses on support of the Fleet Marine Force

 

in landing operations. The creation of the Fleet Marine Force on 8 December 1933

 

incorporates Marine aviation, and subsequent publications and boards outline the concept

 

of employment for Marine aviation. Marine aviation roles become solidified with the

 

approval of the Tentative Manual for Landing Operations on 9 July 193 5 and the General

 

Board of the Navy in January 1939.13 These two occurrences serve to restate Marine

 

aviation's mission and highlight its tasks in support of the Fleet Marine Force. These tasks

 

include air superiority, air reconnaissance, reduction of hostile defenses, protection of the

 

landing forces, artillery spotting, and close air support. Over the years this concept

 

translates to support of the infantry, the division, or the ground combat element (GCE).

 

 

 

The adoption of maneuver warfare as the Marine Corps' warfighting philosophy signals a

 

reevaluation of Marine aviation. The emergence of the Marine expeditionary force as the

 

warfighting MAGTF, focusing on the operational level of war, contributes to this

 

reexamination of the ACE.14 The MAGTF commander retains the option of using the

 

ACE to support the GCE's decisive close operations, but other possibilities exist. For

 

example, he may task the ACE to conduct deep shaping operations that isolate the

 

battlespace for future operations. The MAGTF commander can also direct the ACE to

 

support the combat service support element's force sustainment operations.

 

 

 

The ACE provides a newly realized dimension of flexibility, firepower, and mobility to add

 

to the MAGTF commander's tools for victory. The traditional concept of the ACE as

 

solely a supporting arm of the GCE expands to that of a combat arm in support of the

 

entire MAGTF. The ACE, as part of the integrated combined-arms team, "...is specifically

 

organized, trained, and equipped to function in support of the MAGTF mission."15

 

 

 

            Within a Naval Expeditionary Force

 

 

In operational maneuver from the sea, the sea and land viewed as one maneuver space for a single,

 

seamless operation.

 

 

A naval expeditionary force specializes in operational maneuver from the sea.  Operational

 

maneuver from the sea includes the capability to conduct amphibious operations. Operational

 

maneuver from the sea integrates the maneuver of both land and naval forces, to include

 

the actions of organic aviation assets.16 A naval expeditionary force always includes a

 

MAGTF. As part of this force, the MAGTF gains additional operational mobility,

 

flexibility, and firepower. Operational maneuver from the sea requires four key

 

operational capabilities:  battlespace dominance; power projection; force sustainment;

 

and command, control, and surveillance.17 Aviation, both Navy and Marine Corps, plays

 

a major role in all four operational capabilities.

 

 

 

Battlespace dominance provides the focus of naval expeditionary warfare, allowing control

 

over the area of concern to the commander. This degree of control enhances friendly and

 

denies enemy freedom of action. It includes all actions against enemy capabilities to

 

influence future operations, allowing sustainment of the force and projection of power

 

from the sea. MAGTF aviation participates in battlespace dominance by isolating and

 

shaping the battlespace.

 

Power projection enables the naval expeditionary force to mass forces rapidly. The ability

 

to mass allows the force to generate high intensity, precise offensive power at the decisive

 

place and time of the commander's choosing. It uses maneuver and combined arms

 

against enemy forces to achieve a decision. MAGTF aviation and the MAGTF GCE work

 

together as an integrated combined arms team to project decisive power ashore.

 

 

 

Force sustainment from the sea gives the naval expeditionary force its staying power. It

 

allows the force to remain at sea, safely on station as long as necessary, ensuring

 

continuity and freedom of action. It provides logistics support and maintains lines of communication for the force. The ACE assists the combat service support element in

 

providing sustainment for the MAGTF.

 

 

 

Command, control, and surveillance provides a flexible, responsive, and integrated system

 

through which the naval expeditionary force gathers, processes, and distributes

 

information vital to plan and conduct operations. Command, control, and surveillance

 

links the operational capabilities to allow the naval expeditionary force commander to

 

exercise decentralized leadership and make decisions more rapidly than the enemy. The

 

Marine air command and control system of the ACE enables the ACE commander to

 

exercise centralized command and decentralized control of MAGTF aviation in support of

 

the MAGTF.

 

 

 

Marine aviation participates as part of a naval expeditionary force under two separate

 

forces. Marine aviation always remains a part of the MAGTF and under the command of

 

the MAGTF commander. Separate Marine aviation units not part of the MAGTF may be

 

part of the Navy's carrier forces. The MAGTF commander possesses no command

 

authority over these Marine aviation assets. Augmenting Navy carrier forces must not be

 

at the expense of the MAGTF's aviation requirement.

 

 

 

            Within a Joint and Combined Force

 

Joint/combined operations provide a means to an end, not the end in itself.

 

 

Joint and combined operations provide a means to an end, not the end in itself.

 

These operations prove essential when a strategic task requires the capabilities of more

 

than one Service or nation. However, joint and combined operations possess limits to

 

their utility. Their utility reflects the direct proportion between the size of the forces

 

necessary and the time available for preparation.

 

 

 

The planning, execution, and sustainment of joint and combined operations occurs as an

 

act of compromise. A joint or combined force exists as an ad hoc assembly of military

 

units joined at the highest command level. The separate Services and nations bring

 

individual, and at times, incompatible procedures, training, and logistics arrangements.

 

Whenever possible, theater commanders make use of existing Service and nation combat

 

capabilities. When a single Service or nation possesses the capability to accomplish the

 

task, the need to form a joint or combined force proves unnecessary.

 

 

 

The MAGTF commander normally makes Marine aviation sorties available to the joint

 

force to support the joint force as a whole or another component of the joint force. These

 

sorties are previously agreed to between the MAGTF commander and the joint force

 

commander. They normally include sorties for air defense, long range [air]

 

reconnaissance, and long range [air] interdiction. The MAGTF commander additionally

 

provides to the joint force any MAGTF aviation sorties beyond those required for direct

 

support of the MAGTF. The MAGTF commander can request aviation support from the

 

joint force in those instances where organic MAGTF aviation assets are not sufficient to

 

meet MAGTF requirements.

 

 

 

MAGTF aviation best supports the joint and combined force when it functions as

 

designed, as an inseparable part of the MAGTF. Rather than fragment the tactical and

 

operational integrity of the MAGTF, the joint force commander maintains the unity of

 

effort of the joint force using support relationships.18 If the joint force commander

 

separates MAGTF aviation from the MAGTF, major reductions in the MAGTF's

 

contribution to joint force combat effectiveness offset any minor gains in joint force

 

aviation combat capability. When MAGTF aviation functions as part of the MAGTF to

 

achieve a decision, it increases the successes achieved by the supported force.

 

 

 

                                    Chapter 2

 

 

 

                          Aviation and Maneuver Warfare

 

 

 

"In brief, the whole future of warfare appears to me to lie in the employment of mobile

 

armies, relatively small but of high quality, and renedered distinctly more effective by the

 

addition of aircraft."1

 

 

 

                                                                                                                        --General von Seeckt

 

 

"Battle should no longer resemble a bludgeon fight, but should be a test of skill, a

 

maneuver combat, in which is fulfilled the great principle of surprise by striking from an unexpected direction against an unguarded spot'."2

 

 

 

                                                               --B. H. Liddell Hart

 

 

Maneuver warfare seeks to shatter the enemy's cohesion through a series of rapid, violent, and

 

unexpected actions which create a turbulent and rapidly deteriorating situation with which he

 

cannot cope.

 

Aviation provides a key element in the MAGTF's ability to conduct maneuver warfare. Maneuver

 

warfare requires opportunistic maneuver in time and space to gain a positional advantage over the

 

enemy.3 Maneuver warfare concentrates on those actions which present the enemy with a hopeless

 

situation--a dilemma. Maneuver warfare capitalizes on use of the main effort; focus and speed;

 

surprise, unpredictability, and boldness; and lethality and effectiveness.4 Aviation expands

 

the MAGTF commander's ability to gain a decisive advantage and create a dilemma for

 

the enemy. The MAGTF commander uses aviation to aid and reinforce his maneuver by

 

attacking the enemy's ability to maneuver. If the enemy moves rapidly to counter ground

 

actions, he exposes himself to aviation actions. If the enemy defends against aviation

 

actions, he cannot move fast enough to counter ground actions. Whichever course the

 

enemy takes, he faces disaster.

 

 

 

Marine aviation, task-organized into the ACE, operates in direct support of ground

 

maneuver forces or provides a separate maneuver force within the MAGTF.5 These

 

employment options for Marine aviation give the MAGTF commander added combat

 

power and flexibility to shatter the enemy's will to fight. Our use of mission-type orders,

 

vision and intent, and ability to focus on the enemy play a major role in the conduct of

 

maneuver warfare. They apply equally for ground and aviation forces.

 

 

 

Mission

 

 

 

MAGTF aviation conducts air operations using mission tactics. Mission tactics focus on

 

the assignment of a subordinate mission--including a clearly stated purpose--without

 

specifying how the mission must be accomplished. Mission tactics begin with mission-

 

type orders. Mission tactics allow subordinates the freedom to take whatever steps

 

necessary based on the situation. This freedom for initiative proves vital for the high

 

tempo of operations required in maneuver warfare. However, initiative without unity or

 

focus squanders the MAGTF's strength. We achieve unity, not through imposed control,

 

but through the commander's vision.

 

 

 

Vision and Intent

 

 

Commander's intent gives subordinates a standard by which to judge their own decisions, a

 

constant reminder of what the larger organization is trying to accomplish.

 

 

The commander expresses his vision through his intent. A mission consists of two parts:

 

the task to accomplish and the reason, or intent. Of the two, the intent is the critical

 

element.6 The intent clearly defines the commander's vision of success and his

 

desired end state. When the ACE commander receives his mission, he conducts an

 

analysis based on mission, enemy, terrain and weather, troops and support available-time

 

available (METT-T). The ACE commander considers the MAGTF commander's intent

 

and the intent of the MAGTF commander's superior to develop his own desired end state.

 

The ACE commander reflects his end state when he formulates his commander's intent.

 

The ACE commander task organizes his forces and tasks subordinates to achieve the

 

desired end state. The commander's intent also provides guidance for achieving the

 

conditions necessary for decisive maneuver. While a situation may change, altering or

 

abolishing a mission, the intent continues to guide our actions. The commander's intent

 

must not inhibit initiative. A clear understanding of commander's intent provides the

 

essential ingredient to ensure unity of effort.

 

 

 

            Main Effort

 

Another method for providing unity is the main effort. A commander assigns one specific

 

subordinate unit to achieve the decision. That unit represents his main effort, focused on

 

the enemy. The main effort may be associated with battlespace dominance, power

 

projection, or force sustainment. We direct the main effort where it will cause the most

 

damage to the enemy and where we have the best opportunity for success. The main

 

effort represents our bid for victory. The MAGTF commander designates any element of

 

the MAGTF--including aviation--as the main effort.7 Because it is his bid for success, the

 

commander augments his main effort with every means available. The commander stakes

 

the success of each specific phase of the operation on the performance of his main effort.

 

With this action we -achieve a decision; everything else remains secondary.

 

 

The success of the main effort can only be achieved by the responsive and unselfish actions of

 

supporting units.

 

 

We focus the main effort on an enemy critical vulnerability while exercising economy of force

 

elsewhere. At the tactical and operational levels of war, commanders seek to identify and attack

 

critical vulnerabilities. Enemy critical vulnerabilities are enemy capabilities that prove both

 

susceptible to attack and crucial to the enemy's success. These vulnerabilities lead to the enemy's

 

center of gravity. The center of gravity includes whatever characteristics, capabilities, or localities

 

that provide the source of a military force's freedom of action, strength, or will to fight. The

 

enemy's center of gravity may be his leadership, command and control, or mechanized forces.

 

Mission analysis and higher commanders' intent help identify the enemy's center of

 

gravity. The destruction of the center of gravity achieves the objective of defeating the

 

enemy forces or shattering their will to fight.

 

 

All units not part of the main effort assume a supporting role. The needs of the main

 

effort outweigh the needs of supporting units. Supporting units contribute to the overall

 

success by economizing on resources--fires, mobility means, supplies--that the main effort

 

may require. Similarly, unless specifically ordered to do otherwise, units give priority of

 

support to the main effort. Supporting commanders must anticipate the main effort's

 

direction and requirements. The main effort succeeds only through the immediate,

 

unselfish, and voluntary actions of the supporting units. Supporting units

 

ensure that their actions either directly assist the main effort or provide the main effort as

 

much freedom as possible.

 

 

 

A commander may need to refocus his actions and combat power to achieve success--the

 

main effort may change. Deliberate planning or changing battlespace conditions

 

contribute to this decision to change. A commander designates his main effort for a

 

particular phase of an operation. He then may shift the main effort to another unit in

 

accordance with his plan or the developing situation.

 

 

 

The MAGTF commander normally designates the ACE as the main effort in the initial

 

phase of an operation or campaign to gain and maintain the air superiority necessary for

 

the MAGTF to conduct operations. The ACE may be designated the main effort to

 

conduct deep operations to shape and isolate the battlespace. To conduct forcible entry

 

and secure the initial lodgement, the MAGTF commander switches the main effort to the

 

GCE. After securing the lodgement, the main effort may then shift to the combat service

 

support element for force sustaintnent operations. Next, the MAGTF commander may

 

designate the GCE as the main effort to conduct decisive close operations. The focus may

 

shift back to the ACE to quickly exploit an opportunity or pursue a fleeing enemy.

 

 

 

The goal remains to exploit success, not reinforce failure. Like the commander's intent,

 

the main effort harmonizes the various actions of the force. It allows all the parts to act as

 

a whole. The MAGTF commander uses aviation at the tactical and operational level to

 

achieve a decision that realizes strategic results. Marine aviation capitalizes on its inherent

 

speed, surprise, and unpredictability, focusing its lethality and effectiveness on a critical

 

enemy vulnerability to achieve a decision.

 

 

 

TO ACHIEVE A DECISION

 

MAGTF aviation focuses on but one goal:  to achieve a decisive effect on the outcome of the battle

 

and campaign.

 

 

To be effective within the battlespace, the MAGTF commander uses aviation to achieve a decision.

 

The MAGTF commander  does not attempt to achieve an aviation decision. He attempts to achieve

 

an air-ground decision applying combined arms and maneuver warfare. Ten years after the first

 

combat use of aircraft, the Italian air power theorist, Guilio Douhet, recognizes the need to direct

 

all combat forces toward the ultimate goal:

 

 

 

            The use of military [ground], naval, and aerial forces in war should be

 

            directed toward a single end, to win. To attain maximum effectiveness

 

            these forces must be coordinated and in harmony with one another. The

 

            three forces should function as ingredients--or factors--of a single product

 

            in which the best results can be obtained only by a proper apportioning of

 

            the ingredients used.8

 

 

 

The MAGTF commander may designate the ACE as the main effort. The MAGTF

 

commander may use the ACE in direct support of ground maneuver forces or may employ

 

the ACE itself (or any elements thereof) as a maneuver force. MAGTF aviation

 

contributes significantly to all forms of maneuver--in support of, or as part of--a frontal

 

assault, flanking attack, envelopment, or turning movement.9 If the ACE does not provide

 

the main effort, it functions in a supporting role or provides the reserve. MAGTF aviation

 

can function to support the offense, the defense, and security operations. The ACE is a

 

combat arm of the MAGTF--not a supporting arm of the GCE. With two combat arms,

 

the MAGTF commander possesses the ability to shift the main effort and keep the enemy

 

off balance. To achieve an air-ground decision, the MAGTF commander uses aviation

 

to--

 

. Fix the enemy while another force destroys him.

 

. Destroy the enemy after another force fixes him.

 

. Fix and destroy the enemy.

 

 

The MAGTF commander uses aviation to see and shape his battlespace; extend the range of his

 

ground forces; and discover, delay, degrade, and manipulate the enemy.

 

 

The MAGTF commander uses his organic aviation to see and shape his battlespace

 

in time and space in advance of close combat. He uses aviation's inherent reach not only for the

 

direct application of firepower, but also to extend the range

 

of his ground forces. The MAGTF commander uses aviation to discover the enemy's

 

operational intentions; to delay enemy reinforcements; to degrade critical enemy functions

 

or capabilities, such as command and control or logistics; and to manipulate the enemy's

 

perceptions.

 

 

 

OPERATION DESERT SHIELD: THE ACE AS A MANEUVER FORCE10

 

 

 

            On 2 August 1990, Iraqi President Saddam Hussein's forces invade Kuwait. The

 

            United States is asked to provide military assistance to the Kingdom of Saudi

 

            Arabia to prevent any further southward aggression by Iraqi forces. Later, the

 

            United Nations forms a military coalition to drive the Iraqi army from Kuwait.

 

            The phase to deter the Iraqis from invading Saudi Arabia and defend the

 

            Kingdom becomes known as Operation DESERT SHIELD. The offensive to

 

            drive the Iraqis from Kuwait will be called Operation DESERT STORM.

 

 

 

            The first Marine forces to arrive in Saudi Arabia comprise the 7th Marine

 

            Expeditionary Brigade (MEB), commanded by Major General Hopkins. Arriving

 

            with these forces is the I Marine Expeditionary Force (MEF) ACE commander,

 

            Major General Moore, and HMLA 369, commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Kurth.

 

            HMLA 369 consists of eighteen AH-1W Cobra attack helicopters and six UH-1N

           

            Iroquois ("Huey") utility helicopters. HMLA 369 constitutes the initial ACE

 

            striking power and a considerable portion of 7th MEB's.

 

 

 

            Around 18 August, at a meeting among Major Generals Hopkins and Moore and

 

            Lieutenant Colonel Kurth, concern arises over how to prevent an Iraqi attack into

 

            Saudi Arabia. Lieutenant Colonel Kurth is given a verbal mission-type order to

 

            deploy his squadron along with 1st Light Armored Infantry Battalion to fight a

 

            covering action to delay any Iraqi attack. HMLA 369 is placed in direct support

 

            of 7th Marines. Kurth integrates with assets of the Army's 82d Airborne Division.

 

 

 

            In early September 1990, Kurth meets with the Commanding General of the 1st

 

            Marine Division, Major General Myatt, at Manifah, Saudi Arabia. The division

 

            comprises the GCE of I MEF. The use of firepower to stop an Iraqi attack is a

 

            concern. Kurth is given a mission-type order to act as a screening force

 

            designed to fight a delaying action should the Iraqis attack along the Tap Line

 

            Road or the coastal road. Kurth remains in direct support of 7th Marines,

 

            supporting the overall division plan. Initially this is strictly an attack helicopter

 

            force, with UH-1Ns providing airborne command and control. Major General

 

            Myatt desires the largest number of attack helicopters in history to be used at the

 

            decisive time and place. Task Force Cunningham is thus born.

 

 

 

            With the arrival of the entire ACE of I MEF, it is decided that all aviation assets

 

            will contribute to Task Force Cunningham. Assets include (in addition to the

 

            helicopters) AV-8B Harrier attack aircraft, F/A-18 Hornet fighter attack aircraft,

 

            and EA-6B Prowler electronic warfare aircraft. Forward air controllers (airborne)

 

            (FAC[A]) will provide airborne command and control. Information obtained by

 

            remotely piloted vehicles (RPVs) will be displayed on a remote receiving station

 

            mounted in a UH-1N. Task Force Cunningham is to be employed in the defense

 

            to handle any Iraqi armored attack. If the Iraqis cross the border, the task force

 

            will attrite them as they move south, pushing them west, away from Jubayl

 

            towards fire-sacks established by the division. General maneuver positions and

 

            engagement areas are established. The plan calls for fixed-wing aircraft to

 

            attack along the long axis of the Iraqi formation to disrupt and destroy, killing as

 

            many as possible. As the Iraqi armor starts to deploy their formation, the attack

 

            helicopters then will strike their flank.

 

 

Aviation can prove decisive by providing key information on the enemy. It gives us data

 

on the position of vital enemy assets that expedite targeting them for destruction. Air

 

reconnaissance lets us know what the enemy plans to do while leaving him blind about

 

our movements and intentions.

 

Aviation can delay or prevent intervention of the enemy's operational and tactical

 

reserves. We achieve these results through direct attack on the enemy units. We also

 

achieve these results through attack on enemy infrastructure (logistics capabilities and

 

lines of communication).

 

 

 

Aviation can provide firepower to augment the organic fire support of ground forces.

 

With suitable air support, a ground force will be lighter, more mobile, and more lethal.

 

This reduces internal and external transportation requirements.

 

 

 

Aviation can provide mobility to the ground forces through movement of troops,

 

equipment, and supplies. This often translates into increasing the time or distance the

 

MAGTF can operate before reaching its culminating point.

 

 

 

Aviation can deny the enemy the ability to mass or control his forces. By preventing the

 

enemy from massing, we can achieve local combat superiority with an overall small force.

 

We can then defeat the enemy in detail. The MAGTF commander uses aviation to create

 

a window of opportunity for decisive action.

 

 

 

 

While aviation can be decisive, it is a limited, exhaustible resource which requires time and

 

effort to replace. This holds true of men and material, both within the battlespace and on

 

the production line. Limited numbers exist of aircraft, aircrews, ground-based radars, air

 

control agencies, air control personnel, maintenance personnel, ordnance, fuel, and spare

 

parts. To prevent exhausting aviation assets needlessly, we use aviation to perform

 

actions that infantry, artillery, tanks, mortars, naval surface fire support, or trucks cannot

 

accomplish.

 

 

Commanders must use aviation on necessary actions to achieve a decision; this avoids missing a

 

window of opportunity for decisive action.

 

 

A level of activity exists which aviation can sustain virtually forever. When a

 

commander exceeds this sustained  level of activity, he reduces the length of

 

time that aviation can maintain the heightened pace. Aviation will exhaust one of its resources or

 

outpace its replacements.

 

 

 

After a period of increased activity, aviation requires a recovery period. During this

 

recovery period, aviation will not even be able to deliver its normal sustained level of

 

activity. The longer the period of increased activity or the greater the increase in activity,

 

the longer the recovery required and the lower the "sustained" level will be during that

 

period. Commanders must not squander aviation on unnecessary actions which cannot

 

achieve a decision only to discover that they have missed a window of opportunity for

 

decisive action.

 

 

A Comparative Case Study:  OPERATIONS STRANGLE AND OPERATION DIADEM

 

Operations STRANGLE and DIADEM provide ideal examples to illustrate the difference in effectiveness of aviation acting alone and as part of a combined arms operation.  Operation STRANGLE is planned as an independent air operation to drive the Germans from central Italy.  The air planners intend to make a ground offensive unnecessary.  Operation DIADEM is a combined arms operation.  Coordinated air and ground actions deny the Germans their critical requirement- - tactical mobility.  A study of these tow operations provides important insight into the effective use of aviation.

 

BACKGROUND

 

By the middle of January 1944, after four months of bitter fighting, the Allied advance up the Italian peninsula grinds to a halt.  The Germans have been conducting a skillful withdrawal, stopping the Allies in front of the formidable Gustav Line in central Italy.  Three times the Allies try to break the German defenses.  Three times they fail.  By the middle of March 1944 a stalemate sets in.  Six months of intensive combat exhaust both sides.  Allied ground forces rest and regroup as they wait for reinforcements and better weather.  The allies schedule the ground offensive to resume in May 1944.

 

OPERATION STRANGLE

 

As the Allied ground forces prepare for the upcoming assault against the entrenched German, Allied air officers have their change to prove that air power alone can win on the battlefield.  Having achieved air superiority and free from providing air support for the Allied armies, Mediterranean Allied Air Forces (MAAF) officers concentrate on an independent air interdiction campaign-Operation STRANGLE.

 

Operation STRANGLE begins with the MAAF directive of 19 March 1944.  The objective of this independent air campaign aims "To reduce the enemy's flow of supplies to a level which will make it impractical for him to maintain and operate his forces in central Italy."11

 

The German forces in Italy depend almost entirely on the Italian rail network to bring supplies to the south.  The MAAF officers plan to "strangle" the Germans by severing their vulnerable supply line.  The MAAF plans to wreck the rail network by placing an air interdiction belt across all of Italy north of Rome.  The Allies cut every railroad and reduce rail capacity from 80,000 tons per day to 4,000 tons per day.  The destruction by air power proves extensive, but despite the damage German front line troops do not fall short of supplies or prepare to withdraw.

 

Operation STRANGLE occurs while no major ground action takes place along the front.  MAAF officers plan the operation without completely considering the ground situation.  While the lull in the action frees all MAAF aircraft to conduct the independent air campaign, the Germans are not forced to use their supplies in combat against Allied ground forces.  In fact, during the conduct of Operation STRANGLE, the Germans actually increase their supply stockpiles at the front line.

 

After nearly a month and a half, it becomes apparent to MAAF officers that the original objective appears unrealistic and overly optimistic.  On 28 April 1944, with less than two weeks left before the beginning of the renewed Allied ground offensive, a new directive provides reorientation.  The new directive contains careful words to redefine ".the objective of the air operations as being to make it impossible for the enemy to maintain his forces on their present line in Italy in the face of a combined Allied offensive.  A change in emphasis will be noted here which reflects our growing recognition that we had been unduly optimistic in our original hopes for STRANGLE in the directive of 19 March."12  This change to the objective admits that air power alone cannot drive the Germans from Central Italy.

 

OPERATION DIADEM

 

On 11 May 1944, the rested and reequipped Allied forces launch Operation DIADEM.  The Allies commence the ground assault on the Gustav Line.  MAAF air attacks shift from the air interdiction belt north of Rome to areas immediately behind the German lines.  Three weeks after beginning their combined ground and air assault, the Allies drive 80 miles and link up with the forces stranded on the beaches at Anzio.  The Allies then begin their drive to Rome.  The commander of the XIV Panzer Corps, General von Senger, describes the effectiveness of aviation.

 

The enemy's mastery of the air space immediately behind the front under attack was a major source of worry to the defender, for it prevented all daylight movements, especially the bringing up of the reserves.  We were accustomed to making all necessary movements by night, but in the event of a real breakthrough this was not good enough.  This was what actually occurred in the May breakthrough.  In a battle of movement a commander who can only make the tactically essential moves by night resemble a chess player who for three of his opponent's moves has the right to only one.13

 

The Germans require tactical mobility to defend the Gustav Line.  During Operation DIADEM, aviation  cripples the Germans' tactical mobility.  With not tactical reserves near the front, the Germans are forced to shift forces from one threatened sector to another.  Without tactical mobility, they cannot laterally move forces to strengthen weak areas or prevent penetrations form becoming breakthroughs.  When the Germans finally release strategic reserves in northern Italy, air attacks savage them en route.  These reserves fail to arrive in time and prove too decimated to affect the battle.

 

The combined use of Allied ground and air operations creates a vicious cycle for the Germans.  If Allied ground operations force the Germans to  rapidly reposition combat forces or supplies, they must travel on roads.  When they travel they become vulnerable to Allied air attacks.  Even if Allied air fails to destroy the German reinforcements and supplies, they usually arrive too late to be of use.

 

LESSONS

 

Aviation alone does not prove to be effective in central Italy.  As a self-contained air operation, Operation STRANGLE fails because it does not accomplish its intended objective.  Without the pressure of concurrent ground operations, the Germans do not have to use supplies or reposition forces.  While Operation STRANGLE cannot deny the Germans critical supplies, aviation in Operation DIADEM does deny the Germans tactical mobility.  When the Allied ground offensive forces the Germans to move, aviation produces a devastating effect.  Without continuous and significant pressure from ground forces, aviation proves ineffective.

 

Time also plays a critical role in aviation's effectiveness.  For Operation STRANGLE, MAAF planners neglect to ensure Allied air attacks become time-critical events linked to ground operations.  The Germans have time to repair roads and bridges or reroute supplies.  During Operation DIADEM, Allies ground and air operations force the Germans to react immediately.  Air attacks make it impossible for the Germans to match the Allies' operational speed.  By the time the Germans can react, the situation has changed.

 

When the MAAF air officers realize that air power alone cannot successfully achieve the objective, they change the objective.  This change make Operation STRANGLE appear successful.  The MAAF air officers fail to recognize that Operation STRANGLE owes its "success" to the timely resumption of the Allied ground offensive-Operation DIADEM.  MAAF planners intend to make Operation DIADEM unnecessary; however, their plan fails.  Ironically, the failure to recognize what makes the original Operation STRANGLE successful gives rise to another Operation STRANGLE, this time during the Korean conflict.  Like the original , this Operation STRANGLE (actually two) focuses on destroying the rail system, forcing the enemy to retire northward to shorten his supply lines.  Planners seek to conduct this operation possibly without the pressure of a United Nations ground offensive.  The United Nations never launches a ground offensive, the Chinese and North Koreans never retreat conflict.  Like the original, this Operation STRANGLE (actually two) focuses on destroying the rail system, forcing the enemy to retire northward to shorten his supply, and Operation STRANGLE is viewed as a failure.14

 

AVIATION AT THE OPERATIONAL LEVEL

 

 

At the operational level, the MAGTF commander uses aviation to shape his batttlespace, to

 

accept-or  refuse-combat on his own terms.

 

We fight war simultaneously at three strategic, operational, and tactical.  Strategy is the art of

 

winning wars; tactics is the art of winning battles and engagements.  The operational level links

 

tactical results to strategic aims. At the operational level, the MAGTF commander uses aviation to

 

create conditions for success. Aviation allows the MAGTF commander to shape his battlespace,

 

to accept--or refuse--combat on his own terms.

 

 

 

The strategic use of aviation falls beyond the scope of this book. The tactical use of

 

aviation is well understood by Marines and is covered indepth in current doctrine. The

 

operational level of war deals with the discipline of campaigning.15 At the operational

 

level, we focus aviation on achieving the decisive elements of the commander's

 

intent against targets and capabilities of operational significance.

 

 

 

The MAGTF commander must possess an operational outlook; he must think in a broader

 

dimension of time and space. He aims to elevate the effect of tactical success to a higher

 

level. He wants to achieve strategically meaningful results through tactics. The

 

operational level provides the framework for tactical actions. It defines the battlespace

 

and provides the assets to fight; it sets the goal. Without this framework, tactical battles

 

remain a series of disconnected and, unrelated actions. The operational level decides

 

when, where, and under what conditions to engage the enemy.

 

 

 

The operational use of aviation during the initial Normandy landing (Operation

 

OVERLORD) in World War II offers an example of this ability to decide. The

 

operational role of aviation seeks "...to ensure that the enemy forces attacking the

 

bridgehead did not increase at a more rapid rate than the Allied forces defending and

 

extending it."16 Allied aviation successfully delays the movement of German reserves that

 

can counter the Allied landing. Operationally, the German army remains paralyzed. Field

 

Marshal Erwin Rommel reports in his 10 June 1944 dispatch:

 

 

 

            During the day, practically our entire traffic--on roads, tracks, and in open

 

            country--is pinned down by powerful fighter-bomber and bomber

 

            formations, with the result that the movement of our troops on the

 

            battlefield is almost completely paralyzed, while the enemy can maneuver

 

            freely.17

 

 

 

Commanders must include aviation in campaign planning from the start. Aviation

 

personnel who think operationally and understand aviation's operational capabilities and

 

limitations must be part of the planning staff. Aviation's roles for each campaign differ.

 

No preset formula exists for using aviation. Aviation planners ensure that commanders

 

and staffs understand what aviation can contribute to achieve a decision.

 

 

 

TACTICAL-OPERATIONAL INTERACTION

 

The MAGTF commander can use aviation to provide a tactical victory or an operational decision.

 

 

Actions at one level of war do not remain confined to just that level. The results at one

 

level dictate the results at another. During planning and execution, we must consider

 

every action for its effects on other levels.  While the natural flow of influence goes       

 

from the top down, the flow works in reverse as well. Success at the operational

 

level can promote success at the tactical level. Success at the tactical level can foster

 

success at the operational level. Success at the tactical level proves meaningless without

 

coherent operational and strategic goals and plans. The Vietnam conflict illustrates this

 

point--we win at the tactical level, but no clear operational or strategic guidance ties the

 

tactical actions together. Aviation proves uniquely suited to effect and expand success

 

from one level to another. We realize that aviation provides the operational framework to

 

create conditions for tactical success. Aviation can also play a significant role in turning a

 

tactical success into an operational decision.

 

 

 

Marine aviation makes significant contributions to the defeat of the Japanese in the Pacific

 

during World War II. Beginning in the Solomon Islands with Guadalcanal in 1942,

 

Marine aviation plays a major role in the destruction of the best elements of the Japanese

 

naval air forces, considered superior in quality to the Japanese army air forces. In

 

response to the threat to their major base at Rabaul on the island of New Britain, the

 

Japanese commit and lose all of their fully trained naval air units, including those that

 

survive Midway. They additionally commit and lose a portion of their best trained army

 

air units. The Japanese never fully recover from these losses, the results of which

 

influence all further campaigns.18 The onslaught against Rabaul by Allied aircraft, over

 

half of them flown by Marine aviation,19 prevents Japanese aircraft from prohibitively

 

interfering with American landings in the Solomons area, most notably at Cape

 

Glouchester. The continued pressure of Marine aviation against Rabaul eventually causes

 

the withdrawal of Japanese aircraft from the island fortress. The combined result of these

 

continuous tactical actions neutralizes Rabaul's offensive power, permiting the Allies to

 

execute an operational maneuver and bypass Rabaul, isolating around 100,000 Japanese.

 

 

 

The outcome of a single battle at the tactical level can determine the outcome at the

 

operational level. The German campaign in France during May 1940 provides an ideal

 

example of aviation helping a ground tactical victory achieve an operational decision.20

 

At the crossing of the Meuse River, the Luftwaffe helps Guderians's tactical victory of

 

crossing the river become the operational decision. The ability of aviation to mass

 

firepower quickly where the enemy proves weakest makes this decision possible. As at

 

the Meuse crossing, this often translates to close air support and air reconnaissance for the

 

ground forces making the breakthrough.

 

 

 

We can also use ground operations to guarantee aviation's success. During the 1973 Yom

 

Kippur War, Israeli General Sharon leads a ground attack against four Egyptian surface-

 

to-air missile sites along the Suez Canal (Operation GAZELLE, 17 October 1973). The

 

resulting gap in the surface-to-air missile screen allows the Israeli air force to destroy the

 

Egyptian surface-to-air missile belt and regain control of the air. Once the Israelis destroy

 

the Egyptian surface-to-air missiles, the Israeli air and ground forces quickly drive the

 

Egyptians from the Sinai.

 

 

 

FOCUS AND SPEED

 

Focus allows us to achieve a decision.  Speed allows us to shift our focus rapidly.

 

 

Aviation adds dimension to two of the central concepts of maneuver warfare,  focus and speed.

 

Focus remains central to the goal of warfare, achieving a decision. Speed permits us to set the

 

tactical and operational pace. The faster we operate, the less time the enemy has to react. Speed

 

allows the MAGTF to catch the enemy off guard. Speed proves essential, especially in

 

response to changes in the situation. The key is not actual speed but relative speed to

 

the enemy. We strive to operate faster than the enemy in time and space.

 

 

 

Speed allows aviation to shift its focus rapidly. Enemy critical vulnerabilities shift over

 

time, or new ones emerge. Aviation's ability to concentrate rapidly over large distances

 

allows the MAGTF to attack these vulnerabilities. Speed proves important because the

 

"window of opportunity" may be fleeting. Aviation can quickly shift its focus over large

 

distances. Aircraft from dispersed locations can come together in a single effort in a very

 

short time. They can travel hundreds of miles in a matter of minutes. Aviation can assist

 

ground forces shift their focus rapidly. A similar, unaided shift of ground forces could

 

take hours or days.

 

 

 

Aviation's ability to shift its focus rapidly is not only important tactically, but also

 

operationally. A shift of the operational focus often entails a move of several hundred

 

miles. This may mean days of repositioning for ground forces. Aviation can reposition in

 

hours or even minutes. This ability to shift focus rapidly can be operationally decisive

 

even without engaging in combat.

 

 

 

Again the German campaign in France during 1940 provides an excellent example. The

 

Germans stress the importance of the Allies not recognizing their main effort until it

 

proves too late. They also stress the use of overwhelming firepower when the main effort

 

smashes into the Allies. By using its ability to shift operational focus rapidly, the

 

Luftwaffe plays a pivotal part in solving this problem. At the start of the German

 

campaign, the Luftwaffe concentrates its support for Army Group A, coming through the

 

Netherlands and Belgium. This helps convince the Allies that Army Group A constitutes

 

the Germans' main effort. Once it becomes evident that the real main effort lies with

 

Army Group B, slashing through the Ardennes, the Luftwaffe swiftly shifts its support in

 

favor of Army Group B.

 

 

Aviation's ability to focus its effort over large distances may prove critically important in

 

the defense. If the enemy achieves a breakthrough, little time may exist to stop or delay

 

him except through use of aviation. Repositioning of ground forces to block the enemy

 

takes time. Aviation can provide that time by quickly massing firepower on the enemy to

 

delay, disrupt, or destroy him until ground forces seal the breach.

 

 

 

SURPRISE, UNPREDICTABILITY, AND BOLDNESS

 

 

 

To achieve surprise in aviation operations, we use imagination, unpredictability, and

 

boldness. These qualities remain as important in the operational and tactical planning of

 

air operations as on individual missions. We must not reduce air operations to a formula

 

by repeating the same actions in predictable patterns. The air attacks on North Vietnam

 

occurring at the same time of day and on the same axis provide a clear example of

 

predictability. The subsequent loss in aircraft and pilots is high.

 

 

 

Air attacks against an alert, prepared opponent will likely accomplish little and prove too

 

costly to the attackers. The first attack most enemies expect comes from aviation.

 

Strategic surprise remains hard to achieve. History does show how imagination achieves

 

tactical surprise, reduces losses, and makes air attacks extremely effective.

 

 

The Japanese air attack on the U. S. Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941

 

illustrates a bold action. The attack aims at removing the only threat to Japanese

 

domination of the western Pacific Ocean. The Japanese attack achieves both strategic and

 

tactical surprise. The Japanese realize that surprise plays an essential role in the success of

 

the attack. Surprise proves essential to offset American naval superiority because of the

 

great strength of the U. S. fleet. Aviation provides the only force available to the Japanese

 

possessing the capability to carry out this attack. The fact that it takes the U. S, Navy

 

over two years to recover and regain its strength demonstrates the scope of the Japanese

 

success.

 

 

 

LETHALITY AND EFFECTIVENESS

 

Lethality provides the means-effectiveness provides the end.

 

 

Destruction is not an end in itself, but merely a means to a larger end--effectiveness. We

 

define effectiveness by results. We must not   confuse lethality with effectiveness. Lethality only

 

assures that we can destroy a target. A direct relationship between lethality and effectiveness does

 

not exist. While bomb (battle) damage assessment measures lethality, it proves more difficult to

 

measure effectiveness. If aviation fails to kill a dug-in enemy (often the case), it is not lethal.

 

However, if aviation keeps the enemy under cover or prevents him from manning his weapons

 

systems while the ground force attacks, then aviation is effective. Aviation is not effective if the

 

time between the air and ground attacks is long enough to allow the enemy to recover.

 

 

 

During the Vietnam conflict, aviation fails to effectively stop the movement of supplies

 

from North Vietnam to South Vietnam. The tactical objective of Operation ROLLING

 

THUNDER aims to reduce the level of supplies reaching the enemy, causing his fighting

 

capability to suffer. At the height of their power in 1967, North Vietnamese forces only

 

require 100 tons of supplies a day to sustain military operations. This amounts to less than

 

50 truckloads. Although aviation destroys hundreds of truckloads a day, at least 50 truck

 

loads of supplies safely make it to the south.21 Lethality is high, but effectiveness is low.

 

The failure of air power in Vietnam does not lessen the lethality of aviation. It does warn

 

that aviation may not achieve its political and military goals even when lethal. Lethality

 

does not automatically equate to effectiveness.

 

 

 

The effectiveness of an air attack is fleeting in time and space. A basic difference exists

 

between air attacks and ground attacks. In ground operations, a successful attack causes

 

a penetration or results in a flanking of the enemy. We bypass or encircle him. Time

 

works against the enemy. He must break out or surrender. In contrast, time works for

 

the enemy under air attack. He protects his combat power during the air attack and waits

 

for the aircraft to leave. When they leave, the enemy resumes his activities.

 

 

 

Ways exist that aviation can extend the duration or effectiveness of the attack. They

 

include a continuous flow of aircraft into a target area or the use of cluster munitions,

 

mines, or delayed-fuze ordnance. Most importantly, we can counter aviation's time

 

disadvantage by integrating air and ground actions to apply combined arms effects on the

 

enemy. An air attack creates a temporary effect on the enemy; coordinated ground actions

 

exploit and increase this effect. Subsequent air attacks can pursue and devastate the

 

fleeing enemy. If we fail to integrate air and ground actions, little benefit results from

 

either action.

 

 

 

 

                                                                Chapter 3

 

                              Combat Operations

 

"On our drive to Manila, I depended solely on [Marine Aircraft Groups 24 and 32] to

 

protect my left flank against possible counterattack...I can say without reservation that

 

the Marine dive bombers are one of the most flexible outfits that I have seen in this war.

 

They will try anything once, and from my experience with them, I have found that

 

anything they try usually pans out in their favor. The Marine dive bombers of the First

 

Wing have kept the enemy on the run. They have kept him underground and have

 

enabled troops to move up with fewer casualties and greater speed I cannot say enough

 

in praise of these men of the dive bombers...for the job they have done in giving my men

 

close ground support in this operation.

 

                                                                                                --Major General Verne D. Mudge, USA

 

 

 

"Previously, Marine commanders in attacking an enemy have been limited to a two

 

dimension plane of action attack frontally or from the flank. The ability of the helicopter

 

has made possible a third dimension of action which will permit a commander to bypass

 

a position by going over it...Thus, the helicopter enables the attacker to choose the point

 

of contact to hit the defender where it will hurt him Most."2

 

 

                                                                                                            -- Major Archie I Clapp, USMC

 

 

 

Aviation is offensive by nature. As part of naval expeditionary power projection, its

 

purpose is to carry the battle to the enemy. Offensive action allows us to seize and

 

retain the initiative. When we use aviation for defense, it does not put pressure on the

 

enemy. The Marine Corps clearly expresses this attitude over fifty years ago in Marine

 

Corps Aviation: General, 1940:

 

 

 

            Combat aviation is designed, equipped, and trained for offensive

 

            employment as a striking force against hostile air and surface targets. It is

 

            purely an offensive weapon, regardless of whether the commander

 

            employing it is operating his surface forces offensively of defensively.

 

            Combat aviation has no passive defensive value.3

 

The MAGTF gains victory through the decisive offense; the MAGTF uses the defense to avoid

 

defeat and await opportunity for the offense.

 

 

The MAGTF achieves a decision--victory--through decisive offensive operations characterized by

 

integrated combined arms and maneuver warfare. The MAGTF

 

conducts defensive operations to avoid defeat, waiting for the opportune moment to seize

 

the initiative and go on the offense. Aviation supports MAGTF offensive and defensive

 

operations as the main effort, supporting effort, or reserve. Aviation can provide

 

firepower, mobility, surprise, and speed to create conditions for success in a movement to

 

contact or attack. It makes great use of the same characteristics during exploitation and

 

pursuit operations. Aviation can create a faster tempo of operations than the enemy,

 

allowing the MAGTF to attack or counterattack to exploit a vulnerability. With its range,

 

speed, and ability to mass firepower quickly at a chosen spot, aviation can provide a

 

significant counterstrike capability, protect the flank of a ground force, or function as the

 

reserve in the defense.

 

 

MAGTF aviation provides six functions- -

 

·        Antiair warfare

·        Offensive air support

·        Assault support

·        Air reconnaissance

·        Electronic warfare

·        Control of aircraft and missiles

 

 

MAGTF aviation provides more than just fixed-wing and rotary-wing aircraft.

 

Ground-based air defense assets constitute   another essential component. To unite

 

these individual parts into an effective combat arm, MAGTF aviation possesses

 

a flexible, adaptable, deployable, redundant, and survivable air command and control

 

system. This Marine air command and control system is completely integrated into the

 

MAGTF command and control system.

 

 

 

Two of the best concepts to use when considering the employment of military forces are

 

firepower and mobility. Proper application of firepower and mobility creates conditions

 

for success and allows us to exploit enemy vulnerabilities. They provide great capability

 

when used during exploitation and pursuit or when we commit the reserve. Firepower and

 

mobility are complementary. Firepower aids mobility by causing so much destruction or

 

chaos that the enemy remains helpless to block or oppose our movement. Aviation increases the firepower and mobility of the MAGTF. These capabilities do not reside solely with aviation, but aviation offers some unique capabilities within each. While we separate firepower and mobility for discussion, in combat they remain inseparable parts of a larger whole.

 

TO PROVIDE FIREPOWER

 

The greatest value of firepower lies not in physical destruction- -but in the mental chaos it

 

produces in the enemy.

 

Firepower damages or threatens to damage enemy personnel, facilities, and equipment. This damage (or its threat) sometimes fulfills the purpose of the mission: to destroy an enemy force or keep him from using a certain road, More often, firepower aids movement; an air attack destroys a bunker whose fires immobilize a ground force. 

 

The naval expeditionary nature of the MAGTF means that it may not possess enough

 

heavy ground combat weapons. We select targets which when attacked will help yield a

 

decision. Our goal does not center on the unfocused application of firepower to

 

incrementally reduce the enemy's strength. The purpose of firepower focuses on allowing

 

friendly movement rather than bombarding the enemy into oblivion.4 Maneuver warfare

 

demands the focused use of firepower to fit our larger purpose. We use the selective

 

application of firepower to contribute to the enemy's shock and mental disruption; he

 

loses the will to fight and his moral courage evaporates. Aviation allows the MAGTF

 

commander to select and attack such targets at the operational level. Operation DESERT

 

STORM provides an excellent example of the integrated application of combined arms

 

and its ability to condition and shape the enemy mentally. In this example, actions at the

 

tactical level create conditions for success for actions at the operational level.

 

 

 

                        OPERATION DESERT STORM: COMBINED ARMS RAIDS

 

           

 

            During the first six months of Operation Desert Shield, We [1st Marine Division]

 

            spent a great deal of time studying how the Iraqis fight and looked extensively at

 

            the eight-year Iran-Iraq war. We learned that the Iraqi artillery was very

 

            effective in trapping Iranian soldiers time and time again in confined areas called

 

            'fire-sacks' where thousands of Iranians perished. We knew there were over

 

            1200 artillery pieces belonging to the Iraqi divisions facing the 1st Marine

 

            Division. In our studies of the two obstacle belts in Kuwait and the positioning of

 

            the Iraqi artillery, we concluded that the Iraqis were planning on trapping us in at

 

            least two fire-sacks when we attacked. We also recognized that there wasn't

 

            enough ordnance in the aviators inventory to 'destroy' all that artillery during the

 

            first phase of Desert Storm. So we designed a series of ambushes (combined

 

            arms raids) to 'defeat' the Iraqis before we even attacked into Kuwait.

 

 

 

            Desert Storm kicked off on 17 Jan and the Iraqis began firing their artillery into

 

            Saudi Arabia at Marine and Arab units. On 19 Jan, we ran our first raid. Our

 

            scheme was to move an artillery battery close to the Kuwaiti border at night,

 

            escorted by a Light Armored Infantry Company. We would station a Marine

 

            EA6B Electronic Warfare aircraft inside Saudi Arabian airspace to jam the Iraqis

 

            ground surveillance radars until after we had fired the entire artillery battery on

 

            the target, using Dual Purpose Improved Conventional Munitions (DPICM).

 

            Then, just as the artillery battery started its withdrawal phase of the raid, the

 

            EA6B aircraft would stop jamming just long enough for the Iraqis to detect the

 

            artillery battery's movement before "turning on the buzzer" again. Our intent was

 

            to cause the Iraqi artillery to respond to our fires, which they did each and every

 

            time, meaning that there were Iraqi soldiers on their guns. Once they would

 

            begin firing, a Marine flying as an airborne Forward Air Controller (FAC) in a

 

            Marine F/A 18 (which we call a FASTFAC) would detect their muzzle flashes and

 

            then direct the 'wolfpack' of Marine F/A 18s and AV8Bs waiting in orbit to roll in

 

            on the firing Iraqi artillery.

 

            Our aim was to defeat the 'minds' of the Iraqi artillerymen --to convince them

 

            that it just wasn't smart to man their artillery pieces because every time they did,

 

            Marine aircraft came rolling in on them. We achieved this objective in the 3d

 

            week of Feb. when Iraqi artillerymen were observed by the RPV [remotely

 

            piloted vehicle] abandoning their howitzers as our aircraft began attacking their

 

            positions after such a raid!

 

 

 

            ...We felt reasonable [reasonably] confident, based on the 'shaping of the

 

            battlefield' done during our combined arms raids that if we could get Marine air

 

            over the Iraqi artillerymen, they would abandon their guns! ...With the Iraqi

 

            artillerymen discouraged, and in spite of the poor weather and lack of visibility,

 

            we were able to proceed through both of the Iraqi obstacle belts more rapidly

 

            than CENTCOM had imagined.5

 

 

TO PROVIDE MOBILITY

 

Mobility creates superiority at the point of battle or allows avoidance of disadvantageous battle.

 

 

Mobility allows the MAGTF commander to focus firepower where it best can         

 

achieve a decision. The MAGTF ties mobility to the use or threat of

 

firepower. Aviation provides the MAGTF tactical and operational mobility; that is, the

 

ability to move within an engagement or battle and to move between engagements or

 

battles.

 

 

 

While all the elements of the MAGTF possess organic mobility means, aviation allows the

 

MAGTF commander to rapidly reposition forces to any location in the battlespace.

 

Armed with this ability, we can conduct tactical and operational actions at a tempo faster

 

than the enemy. We use these relative tempo advantages to shift quickly from one action

 

to another. Aviation can also provide a tempo advantage to the MAGTF by stopping or

 

slowing enemy movement.

 

 

 

Aviation provides mobility directly and indirectly. It adds directly to the MAGTF's

 

mobility through the tactical and operational movement of combat forces and equipment.

 

In addition to the movement of these forces, it provides logistical support to reduce or end

 

reliance on surface lines of communication. This ability to move forces, equipment, and

 

supplies allows the MAGTF to maneuver freely in the battlespace.

 

 

 

Indirectly, aviation increases the MAGTF's tactical and operational mobility by providing

 

protection from enemy aviation, reconnaissance, and intelligence. If aviation prevents the

 

enemy from seeing us or knowing what we are doing, we gain relative speed. While

 

aviation provides high-speed movement of combat forces, it can reduce this need by

 

blinding the enemy.

 

 

 

TO CREATE CONDITIONS FOR SUCCESS

 

Aviation crates conditions for success y shaping the battlespace.

 

 

Aviation creates conditions for success by forcing the enemy to react as we desire.      

 

Aviation can force the enemy to move against his will and prevent his massing of forces and

 

equipment. It can impede or prevent him from moving when he must. Aviation can delay the arrival

 

of enemy forces, compel him to commit them piecemeal, and deny him the supplies he needs to be

 

effective on the battlefield. The MAGTF commander uses aviation to help him shape the

 

battlespace and to seize the initiative from the enemy. FMFM 1-1, Campaigning, states--

 

 

 

            ...the MAGTF commander can use ... his organic aviation to see and shape

 

            the course of the campaign in time and space well in advance of the close

 

            combat of ground forces. This...applies not only to the direct application

 

            of aviation combat power, but also to the range it provides ground forces

 

            as well. Such activities include attempting to ascertain the enemy's

 

            operational intentions; delaying enemy reinforcements by interdiction;

           

            degrading critical enemy functions or capabilities such as command and

 

            control, offensive air support, or logistics; and manipulating the enemy's

 

            perceptions.6

 

 

 

To create conditions for success, the MAGTF must be able to operate freely within the

 

battlespace, both in the air and on the ground. While not always possible immediately, the

 

MAGTF must gain control of the air--air superiority--as soon as possible. Control of the

 

air remains a priority for the entire MAGTF--not just the ACE. Air superiority allows the

 

MAGTF the freedom of action it requires to conduct operations. It denies the enemy

 

freedom of action. Besides enabling us to see and attack the enemy, control of the air

 

prevents the enemy from attacking us while leaving him both blind and largely unable to

 

move or communicate. Air superiority is not simply "air-to-air combat." It includes the

 

neutralization or destruction of enemy air defenses, airfields, and aviation command and

 

control facilities. The air operations phase (17 January to 23 February 1991) of Operation

 

DESERT STORM illustrates the devastating effectiveness of air superiority vividly. At

 

no time during the ensuing ground operations (24 to 27 February 1991) did the Iraqis

 

possess the air capability or will to prohibitively interfere with our actions.

 

 

 

Aviation influences the way the enemy fights on the operational and tactical level. In the

 

World War 11 island hopping campaign, aviation forces the Japanese to man literally

 

hundreds of outposts. Aviation's ability to attack anywhere compels the Japanese to

 

spread their combat forces to defend everywhere. Thinly spread, the Japanese prove

 

unable to mass forces to withstand the combined might of United States air, land, and sea

 

forces. The tactical operation and victory that the aircraft carriers and aviators under Rear

 

Admirals Fletcher and Spruance achieve at Midway in June 1942 decisively blunts the

 

Japanese naval offensive of Admiral Yamamoto and Vice Admiral Nagumo. In August

 

1942, the 1st Marine Division, commanded by Major General Vandegrift, lands on

 

Guadalcanal. The island is secured by February 1943, after a hard fight involving crucial

 

support by Marine aviation, directed by Brigadier Generals Geiger and Woods. The

 

results of these two tactical operations together produce far reaching operational

 

consequences. They place the Japanese on the defensive for the remainder of the war,

 

perhaps signalling the turning point in the Pacific theater.

 

 

 

With the European landings in Italy and France, the Germans feel the full impact of

 

aviation at the tactical level. Allied aviation denies the Germans free movement by day,

 

disrupts timetables, and disorganizes units. The Germans depend on tactical mobility for

 

success. The loss of tactical mobility prevents them from rapidly repositioning forces,

 

committing reserves, or arriving at the battlefield in unit strength.

 

 

 

 

TO EXPLOIT ENEMY VULNERABILITIES

 

Aviation can directly attack an enemy vulnerability or create vulnerability.

 

 

Aviation creates conditions for success by pitting our strength against enemy  weakness. To be

 

effective, we destroy that which is most important to the enemy. This weakness--or critical

 

vulnerability--is not a permanent feature. It presents a window of opportunity that will eventually

 

close. A critical vulnerability must be both vulnerable and critical. We seek the enemy's critical

 

vulnerabilities, then focus all our combat power to strike them.

 

 

 

We attack enemy critical vulnerabilities to achieve a decision. Rarely can we achieve a

 

decision as a result of our initial actions. Our initial actions create unforeseen, fleeting

 

opportunities which we must quickly seize to exploit. These opportunities may be the

 

result of our actions, enemy mistakes, or even chance. By exploiting opportunities, we

 

create more opportunities for exploitation. We achieve a decision through our willingness

 

to ruthlessly exploit these opportunities.7

 

 

 

Aviation allows us to shift our focus swiftly to avoid enemy strengths and attack his new

 

weaknesses. As the campaign or battle unfolds, vulnerabilities shift. The enemy covers

 

some vulnerabilities while new ones develop. Aviation can attack existing enemy

 

weaknesses or uncover new vulnerabilities which it or other MAGTF forces can exploit.

 

 

 

FOR EXPLOITATION AND PURSUIT

 

 

 

Aviation allows the MAGTF to turn a successful attack into exploitation and pursuit.

 

Exploitation extends the destruction of the enemy by maintaining continuous offensive

 

pressure, The purpose of exploitation lies in destroying the enemy's cohesion. As enemy

 

cohesion breaks down, the exploitation may develop into a pursuit. The pursuit seeks to

 

annihilate the enemy force. The difference between exploitation and pursuit rests with the

 

condition of the enemy. The opportunity to conduct a pursuit is often fleeting and must be

 

seized quickly by the commander.

 

 

 

An effective pursuit requires the entire MAGTF. While aviation may be responsible for

 

the physical destruction during the pursuit, the results characterize the use of maneuver

 

warfare and combined arms. In a classic demonstration of maneuver warfare, the

 

commander's intent aims to "...render the enemy incapable of resisting by shattering his

 

moral and physical cohesion--his ability to fight as an effective, coordinated whole."8

 

Without the pressure of ground operations to force the enemy to flee, the enemy will not

 

be driven into the waiting arms of aviation.

 

 

 

AS A RESERVE

 

 

Aviation reserves can shift support quickly to reinforce success and permit decisive maneuver.

 

The MAGTF organizes a reserve not to prevent defeat but to reinforce success.

 

A reserve provides the commander the flexibility to rapidly conduct decisive

 

maneuver. Aviation reserves allow the MAGTF commander to shift air support rapidly

 

from one area to another. The aviation reserve may be airborne (loitering) or on the

 

ground. We can use aviation reserves in offensive or defensive operations.

 

 

 

The concept of an aviation reserve does not clash with the principle of concentration. The

 

use of Marine aviation as a mobile reserve appears as early as 1940.9 While we want to

 

attack the enemy with the strongest force, the fog of war comes into play. When no initial

 

opportunity exists for aviation to achieve a decision, the MAGTF commander may

 

organize an aviation reserve. We cannot possess perfect knowledge of the enemy, his

 

intentions or disposition. The commander attempts to make contact with the enemy with

 

the smallest possible force. He uses this force to develop the situation, determine the

 

critical enemy vulnerability, and then strike with the bulk of his combat power--his

 

reserve.

 

 

 

Aviation reserves allow us to exploit an enemy weakness discovered during combat.

 

Additionally, aviation reserves can increase the enemy's uncertainty with the introduction

 

of new forces. Aviation reserves, like any reserve, require commitment in total and at the

 

same time. Avoid piecemeal employment of reserves. Because aviation assets remain a

 

limited asset, normally employ them as an operational reserve.

 

 

 

The use of aviation reserves claims historical precedence. Both the Soviets (offensively)

 

and the British (defensively) make use of aviation reserves in World War II. As early as

 

1941, the Soviets assemble large aviation reserves to provide operational flexibility.10

 

They use these aviation reserves to increase air support for threatened fronts. In the

 

summer of 1941, reserve aviation groups form to reinforce critical sectors. This leads to

 

the formation a year later of reserve aviation corps to support air armies.

 

 

The British use an aviation reserve during the Battle of Britain.11 As the battle begins, the

 

Luftwaffe enjoys a 2 to I aircraft advantage over the Royal Air Force. Air Marshal

 

Dowding keeps a third of his forces in safe areas as a reserve. His two subordinate

 

commanders maintain their own tactical reserves. Even during Britain's darkest hour, the

 

British maintain an aviation reserve. When on 15 September 1940 the Germans launch

 

what they believe to be their decisive blow, the British commit all their air reserves. The

 

Luftwaffe suffers such heavy losses that they never again challenge the Royal Air Force in

 

the skies over England. The British use of air reserves wins the Battle of Britain and

 

permanently postpones Operation SEALION.

 

 

 

                                                                        Chapter 4

 

 

                                                Military Operations Other Than War

 

 

 

"We are now concerned with the peace of the entire world and the peace can only be

 

maintained by the strong."1

 

 

 

                                                                                                --General George C. Marshall, USA

 

"We are not the World's policeman, but guess where the people look when they need a

 

cop."2

 

 

 

                                                                                                            --General Colin L. Powell, USA

 

 

Military operations other than war prevent war, promote peace, and support civil authorities.

 

 

In the future, as in the past, Marines will be frequently called to take part in actions     

 

short of war. Military operations other than war do not directly relate to combat or hostile actions

 

by any party. Military operations other than war fall into two categories: deter war and resolve

 

conflict and promote peace.3

 

 

 

Military operations that deter war and resolve conflict include--

 

 

 

·        Peace enforcement.

 

·        Counterterrorism.

 

·        Support to counterinsurgency.

 

·        Noncombatant evacuation.

 

·        Show of force.

 

·        Raid.

 

·        Strike.

 

 

 

Military operations other than war that promote peace include--

 

·        Counterdrug.

 

·        Peacekeeping.

 

·        Noncombatant evacuation.

 

·        Nation assistance.

 

·        Humanitarian assistance.

 

·        Antiterrorism.

 

·        Disaster relief.

 

·        Civil support.

 

 

We conduct peacetime military operations in support of vital national interest.

 

Operations other than war equate to peacetime military operations. We

 

conduct peacetime military operations  for the same reason we enter combat--in

 

support of vital national interests. Many of the same combat tenets, principles, tactics, and

 

procedures apply to peacetime military operations.4 As Marines, we must be ready to

 

conduct peacetime military operations while remaining primarily organized, trained, and

 

equipped for combat.

 

 

 

The traits we prize and encourage in combat are essential for peacetime military

 

operations-boldness, initiative, and flexibility. Peacetime military operations are governed

 

by many of the same considerations as combat. While no difference exists in most aspects,

 

a few areas require increased emphasis. The rules of engagement during peacetime

 

military operations employ more restrictive and politically sensitive conditions than in

 

combat operations. This requires restraint and the careful application of military force.

 

The presence of military forces may provoke military, civil, and terrorist reactions. We

 

must take appropriate security measures to protect the force and prevent disruption of the

 

mission. Units must retain the ability to rapidly transition from a peacetime to a combat

 

posture.

 

 

 

Peacetime military operations may account for a significant part of Marine actions. More

 

peacekeeping operations have occurred between 1988 and 1993 than in the previous forty

 

year history of the United Nations.5 The Marine Corps contributes significantly to these

 

terminated and ongoing operations. Involvement includes peacekeeping and humanitarian

 

assistance in Bosnia; humanitarian assistance in Iraq and Bangladesh; humanitarian

 

assistance, peacemaking, and peacekeeping in Somalia; and disaster relief in Florida.

 

 

 

Forward deployed Marine expeditionary units may be tasked to carry out operations other

 

than war. Other operations may require the deployment of larger MAGTFs. In either

 

case, the ACE of the MAGTF will provide significant capability.6 The CH-46E Sea

 

Knight can carry twenty combat Marines on a helicopterborne assault or twenty

 

noncombatant civilians during an evacuation. The KC-130 Hercules can move 35,000

 

pounds of combat supplies to support ground combat operations or 35,000 pounds of life-

 

sustaining food for humanitarian assistance. The F/A-18 Hornet can carry air-to-air ordnance

 

to gain air superiority or air-to-ground ordnance to conduct peacekeeping. The

 

direct air support center can control aircraft dropping bombs for the division or coordinate

 

aircraft bringing in sandbags to a flood ravaged region.

 

 

 

HUMANITARIAN ASSISTANCE

 

 

Humanitarian assistance saves lives or prevents great damage to or loss of life.

 

 

Humanitarian assistance relieves or reduces the effects of natural or            

 

manmade disasters that present a serious threat to life or loss of property. This assistance involves a

 

friendly population victimized by the destruction of part of its support infrastructure. Humanitarian

 

assistance includes disaster relief, rudimentary construction, water and sanitary assistance, and

 

resettlement of displaced civilians.

 

 

 

                                                            OPERATIONS IN SOMALIA

 

 

 

            In August 1992, United States military forces begin airlifting food and relief

 

            supplies into Somalia as part of Operation PROVIDE RELIEF. This action is

 

            plagued by the uncertainty and instability of the Somali political situation. Civil

 

            unrest and armed gangs interfere with the safe operations of these flights. The

 

            distribution of relief supplies is subject to robbery and outright obstruction by the

 

            local "warlords."

 

 

 

            To safeguard relief workers and supplies requires military forces. In December

 

            1992, a joint task force commanded by Lieutenant General Johnston, USMC,

 

            arrives off Somalia. Operation RESTORE HOPE thus begins. Operating under

 

            United Nations authority (UNOSOM 1), Marines and special operations forces

 

            secure the port and airfield in the capital city of Mogadishu. Maritime

 

            prepositioning ships provide essential initial support. Over the next three

 

            months, the task force moves throughout Somalia, establishing and securing

 

            relief centers and escorting supply convoys. The spread of weapons throughout

 

            the country during the civil war is a major concern. This requires identifying and

 

            disarming individuals and groups that pose a threat to military forces and relief

 

            workers.

 

 

 

            The task force, together with the State Department, establish an environment

 

            that allows humanitarian operations to proceed. Relief workers return and

 

            distribute food and other relief supplies. Operations are turned over to a United

 

            Nations force (UNOSOM II) in May 1993.

 

 

 

            In March 1995, a combined joint task force led by Lieutenant General Zinni,

 

            USMC executes Operation UNITED SHIELD. It covers the withdrawal of all

 

            United Nations peacekeeping troops from Somalia.

 

 

 

Disaster relief provides emergency assistance to victims of natural and manmade disasters.

 

These operations depend heavily upon the sustainment capability of MAGTF aviation.

 

Because of this critical requirement, aviation may be the first element the MAGTF

 

commits.

 

 

 

On the night of 29 April 1991, Bangladesh is struck by a cyclone named Marian. It kills

 

over 130,000 people and more than one million cattle. The country's entire infrastructure

 

along the Bay of Bengal is destroyed. The disaster is beyond the capabilities of the

 

country and nongovernmental organizations. On 10 May, the U.S. Ambassador formally

 

requests military assistance. On 11 May, the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff issues

 

the execute order to U.S. Pacific Command to provide assistance.

 

 

 

            Within 24 hours, General Stackpole and a small team had reached the

 

            scene--the leading element of a joint task force that would touch the lives

 

            of 1.7 million survivors during a five-week operation. To the people of

 

            Bangladesh, they were angels of mercy, coming from the sea. The

 

            operation's code name was a perfect fit: Sea Angel.7

 

 

 

On 15 May 1991, the joint task force headquarters is augmented by an amphibious task

 

force returning from Operation DESERT STORM. Helicopters and air cushion landing

 

craft prove instrumental in the transportation of supplies to the survivors

 

 

 

                                                            JOINT TASK FORCE ANDREW

 

 

 

            At 0500 on 24 August 1992, Hurricane Andrew strikes south Florida,

 

            extensive destruction. The Governor of Florida requests federal assistance. In

 

            response to this request, Joint Task Force Andrew is formed to commence

 

            humanitarian operations. Composed of elements of all Services and both active

 

            and reserve military forces, Joint Task Force Andrew begins operations on 28

 

            August 1992.

 

 

 

            Joint Task Force Andrew provides field feeding sites, storage and distribution

 

            warehouses, local and line haul transfer, and other logistical support to the

 

            people of south Florida, Success is defined as getting life support systems in

           

            place and relieving immediate hardships until civilian federal, state, and local

 

            agencies can reestablish normal operations.

 

 

 

            Operations are conducted in three phases. Phase I provides immediate life

 

            support systems: food, water, shelter, medical supplies and services, sanitation,

 

            and transportation. Phase II--the recovery phase--continues to provide Phase I

 

            services while helping civil authorities reestablish public services. The task

 

            force coordinates with many government and private agencies. Finally, a

 

            reconstruction phase continues to reestablish services while the task force

 

            redeploys.

 

 

 

The scope of humanitarian assistance is limited. These operations are normally initiated in

 

response to requests for immediate help and rehabilitation from a domestic or foreign

 

government or an international agency. Military assistance supplements or complements

 

the efforts of the host-nation civil authorities or international agencies that possess the

 

primary responsibility for providing humanitarian assistance.

 

 

 

PEACEKEEPING

 

 

Peacekeeping maintains peace with the approval of all major belligerents.

 

 

Peacekeeping operations support diplomatic efforts to maintain peace in areas of         

 

potential conflict. We conduct peacekeeping operations with the approval of all major belligerent

 

parties. These operations monitor and maintain an existing truce during diplomatic efforts to reach

 

a comprehensive peace settlement. Peacekeeping operations require the peacekeepers to

 

deal with tense and dangerous situations without becoming a participant.

 

 

 

Peacekeeping differs from peace enforcement. Peace enforcement uses military force to

 

create peace between warring factions. Peace enforcement occurs without a prior

 

agreement or commitment by the combatants.

 

 

 

THE COMBAT LINK

 

 

 

Peacetime military operations may occur simultaneously with combat operations. While

 

our intent remains peaceful, combat is always a possibility. A humanitarian assistance

 

operation may flare into an armed confrontation. Providing food and water to displaced

 

civilians may also require establishing and maintaining security for the relief supplies, the

 

civilians, and the military force itself. Our recent incursions in Haiti and Somalia offer

 

clear examples. Our past operations in Haiti, the Dominican Republic, and Nicaragua in

 

the early to mid twentieth century reinforce this possibility.

 

 

 

It may prove difficult to identify or discriminate between friend or foe. The need to

 

provide peacetime assistance must be balanced with the security of the MAGTF and the

 

people being helped. MAGTF aviation can play a vital role to create conditions for

 

success during operations other than war.

 

 

 

                                                                        Conclusion

 

 

 

"Aviation is still so much an infant that only those who possess that brand of imagination

 

commonly generated by a pipe and a pill are competent to prophesy its final

 

development."1

 

 

 

                                                                                    --Lieutenant Alfred A. Cunningham, USMC

 

 

 

"You mayfly over a land forever; you may bomb it, atomize it, pulverize it and wipe it

 

clean of life--but if you desire to defend it, protect it, and keep it for civilization, you

 

must do this on the ground, the way the Roman legions did, by putting your young men

 

into the mud."2

 

 

 

                                                                                                                        --T.R. Fehrenbach

 

 

Marine aviation makes the Marine Corps unique. To understand Marine aviation,

 

we must understand maneuver warfare, combined arms, and the MAGTF. The

 

fundamental difference between Marine aviation and other aviation forces is

 

that Marine aviation is part of a combined arms organization--the MAGTF. MAGTF

 

aviation never operates independently--it remains an integral part of the MAGTF. The

 

starting point for the successful use of Marine aviation lies in our history, a history forged

 

in combat.

 

 

 

            To secure the full measure of cooperation between the air and ground

 

            forces, it is necessary that each understands the problems of the other. The

 

            aviator must know something of the tactics of the ground patrol, and he

 

            must be ready and willing to go assume any justified risk to assist the

 

            ground commander. On the other hand, the ground commander should

 

            understand the hazards and limitations imposed on aviation operating over

 

            difficult terrain, and should not expect the impossible.3

 

 

 

The MAGTF commander uses aviation "to materially shorten each campaign."4 To

 

achieve this goal, we must understand the tactical and operational use of aviation. We

 

must fully grasp the impact that aviation actions at one level will produce at another. To

 

successfully employ aviation tactically and operationally, we must fully integrate it into all

 

aspects of MAGTF planning and execution. Separate air and ground operations yield

 

disparate effects on the enemy. The MAGTF commander combines his air and ground

 

combat power into one operation, projecting overwhelming firepower at the point of

 

decision.

 

 

 

Aviation has been used in every type of combat operation, from small scale insurgencies in

 

the Caribbean to global conflict in World War II. In many cases, aviation produces a

 

major effect in battles and campaigns.

 

 

 

Without Luftwaffe support, it is unlikely General Guderian crosses the Meuse River in

 

1940--the decisive act of the German campaign in France. U.S. Navy carrier-based

 

aviation turns the tide against the Japanese navy at Coral Sea and Midway. Marine

 

aviation plays a pivotal role in the battle for Guadalcanal and is decisive in the isolation

 

and neutralization of Rabaul, opening the door for an operational maneuver to bypass the

 

island fortress.. When Operation STRANGLE fails to force the Germans from Italy, the

 

Allies launch Operation DIADEM, where aviation proves pivotal. Without

 

control of the air, United Nations forces will be pushed off the Korean peninsula in

 

midsummer 1950. In Operation DESERT STORM, aviation sets the stage for the

 

decisive act of the campaign--the ground offensive. While aviation is crucial to our victory

 

against Iraq, "Air power alone could not have brought the war to so sharp and decisive a

 

conclusion."5

 

 

 

No formula exists for the proper employment of aviation. We must understand its

 

capabilities and limitations when used as a maneuver force, the main effort, supporting

 

effort, or reserve. To effectively use aviation, we must use it as part of the MAGTF

 

combined-arms team. Aviation can pin down the enemy while ground forces attack.

 

Aviation can decimate the enemy that ground forces have cornered. Aviation can strike

 

where the enemy is not prepared.

 

 

 

In the end, air operations prove effective only when integrated with ground operations.

 

Aviation cannot substitute for strong, aggressive ground operations. Aviation does not

 

provide a cure that can independently achieve results. When aggressive ground operations

 

exploit the results of air operations, decisive and lasting effects can be won. Aviation and

 

ground maneuver are complementary.

 

 

 

While aviation alone cannot achieve an independent victory, when we integrate it with

 

other combat forces, aviation can be the dominant force within the battlespace. We use

 

aviation where it will achieve a decision--in a battle or a campaign. The MAGTF

 

commander uses aviation to increase the combat power of the MAGTF. The firepower

 

and mobility of aviation allow the MAGTF to remain light and mobile--naval

 

expeditionary in nature--yet powerful enough to accomplish its mission.

 

 

 

Marine aviation functions as an integral element of the MAGTF. The use of each element

 

requires cooperation of all the others. Only when we employ the MAGTF as a whole can

 

we fight and win. This basic concept--the very purpose of Marine aviation--is the

 

framework that guides the employment of Marine aviation.

 

 

 

Perhaps Major General James M. Myatt, USMC, best sums it up--

 

 

 

            Marine Aviation's mission is to support the rest of the Marine Air-Ground

 

            Task Force. Sometimes Marine Air can be a maneuver element on its own,

 

            with a 'mission-type' order assigned to "...prevent the Iraqis from attacking

 

            down the coast road" as was done in Operation Desert Shield. Most often its

 

            mission is to support the Division as was done in Desert Storm. Close Air

 

            Support is only one of the functions of Marine Aviation. As you read my

 

            response, I hope you have gained an appreciation for the type of coordination

 

            and close cooperation that exists in the Marine Air-Ground team.

 

 

 

            One night during one of the combined arms raids, I heard over our radios the

 

            voice of the F/A 18D FASTFAC pilot telling the 'wolfpack' pilots: "...hurry

 

            up! They are attacking our Marines..." as he watched muzzle flashes of the

 

            Iraqi artillery firing at our ground raid force. That was one of the most

 

            poignant moments of my life. I never take this Air-Ground team for granted.

 

            Such teamwork doesn't just happen-and it can't be legislated by Congress or

 

            created by some instruction. Nor can it really be explained why it's like it is.

 

            But, the result is a marvelous marriage, more powerful than the sum of the

 

            parts, where a Marine's most sought after privilege is to be able to fight for

 

            another Marine.6

 

 

 

                                                                        Notes

 

                                                                 Foreword

 

1          Gen Carl E. Mundy, Jr., USMC, "Reflections on the Corps...Marine Tactical

Aviation," Marine Corps Gazette (May 1992), 15.

 

2          Henri Jomini, The Art of War (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1971), x.

 

                                                Aviation and the Marine Corps

 

1            Attributed to ADM Arthur Radford by Robert Debs Heinl, Jr., Dictionary of

Military and Naval Quotations (Annapolis, MD: United States Naval Institute, 1985), 6.

 

2          GEN Omar N. Bradley, USA, and others, Effect of Air Power on Military

Operations: Western Europe (Wiesbaden, Germany: Twelth Army Group, 15 July 1945),

200.

 

3          Peter B. Mersky, U.S. Marine Corps Aviation: 1912 to the Present (Baltimore,

MD: Nautical & Aviation Publishing Co. of America, 1987), 2.

 

4            Mersky, 4. On 5 January 1914, a group of Marine aviators and enlisted

mechanics, with their equipment, embarked aboard Navy transport Hancock and sailed for

Puerto Rico to join the Advance Base Brigade in the annual Atlantic Fleet exercises. It

was the first time an all-Marine aviation force operated as a special part of Marine ground

forces.

 

5            Mersky, 11. On 14 October 1918, Marines of Squadron 9, 1st Marine Aviation

Force flew a mission against the German-held railyards in Belgium. The flight of five DH

4 and three DH-9A bombers, led by Capt R. S. Lytle, conducted the first mission to be

flown by Marines on their own in World War I. The strike was essentially a deep air

support or air interdiction mission.

 

6          Lt Col Edward C. Johnson, USMC, Marine Corps Aviation: The Early Years

1912-1940 (Washington, DC: U.S. Marine Corps, 1977), 53. Aircraft took part in

bombing and strafing attacks on bandits, but because of the limited armament and

maneuverability of the planes and the lack of rapid, reliable air-ground communications,

aviation was not a decisive anti-bandit weapon. Aviation did enhance the mobility of

forces operating in largely roadless terrain. In Haiti in 1919, Lt Lawton H. M. Sanderson

of E Squadron (formerly 4th Squadron) began practicing a bombing technique whereupon

he entered a 45 degree dive, releasing the bomb at 250 feet. His squadron mates soon

took up the practice, as did Marines at Quantico in 1920. Also see Robert Sherrod,

History of Marine Corps Aviation in World War II (Baltimore, MD: Nautical & Aviation

Publishing Co. of America, 1987), 23.

 

                                                                          Notes

 

 

7          For detailed information on Marine aviation activities in Nicaragua, see Maj Gen

John P. Condon, USMC (Ret.), U.S. Marine Corps Aviation (Washington, DC:

Department of the Navy, 1987); Johnson, Marine Corps Aviation: The Early Years 1912-1940;

Mersky, U.S. Marine Corps Aviation: 1912 to the Present; and Sherrod, History of

Marine Corps Aviation in World War II.

 

8          Robert Sherrod, History of Marine Corps Aviation in World War II (Baltimore,

MD: Nautical & Aviation Publishing Co. of America, 1987), 25. Major Rowell trained all

of his pilots in dive bombing. Rowell first noticed Army pilots practicing the technique at

Kelly Field, TX in 1923. The Army pilots credited its invention to the British in World

War I.  The Marines were the first to adopt it as a standard operating procedure.

 

9          William S. Lind, Maneuver Warfare Handbook (Boulder and London: Westview

Press, 1985), 20. Lind discusses the difference between combined arms and supporting

arms in detail. Of supporting arms he says, "In contrast, supporting arms is hitting the

enemy  with two or more arms in sequence, or if simultaneously, then in such combination

that the actions the enemy must take to defend himself from one also defends him from the

other(s)." He further states, "Combined arms, like other elements of maneuver warfare,

seeks to strike at the enemy psychologically as well as physically. It puts him on the horns

of a dilemma..Supporting arms, in contrast, just faces the enemy with a problem."

Additionally, Lt Col Price T. Bingham, USAF, discusses the integration of air and ground

(combined arms) in an article entitled "Ground Maneuver and Air Interdiction in the

Operational Art," that appeared in the March 1989 edition of Parameters.

 

10        Title 10 Armed Forces, USC, 1988 ed., Volume III (Washington, DC: GPO,

1989), 913. This information is also included in Fleet Marine Force Manual (FMFM) 1-2,

The Role of the Marine Corps in the National Defense (Washington, DC: U. S. Marine

Corps, 21 June 1991), 3-6. Fleet Marine Force Reference Publication (FMFRP) 12-26,

Marine Corps Aviation: General, 1940 (Quantico, VA: U.S. Marine Corps, 11 June

1990), a reprint of an original 1940 manual, alludes to the use of aviation as a combined

arm. On pp. 48-49, FMFRP 12-26 discusses the use of aviation in the absence of artillery

or against such targets that are either out of range or unsuitable for engagement by ground

weapons. On p. 51, the combination of weapons (including aviation) is discussed.

 

11        Johnson, 56.

 

 

                                                                        Notes

 

 

12        Fleet Marine Force Reference Publication (FMFRP) 2-12, Marine Air-Ground

Task Force: A Global Capability (Quantico, VA: U. S. Marine Corps, 10 April 199 1),

16. Joint Pub 1-02, Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and, Associated

Terms  (Washington, DC: Joint Chiefs of Staff, 23 March 1994), 228 contains the

definition of a MAGTF. See figure below for the elements of a MAGTF.

 

Click here to view image

 

 

13            Mersky, 24-25. On 9 July 1935, Headquarters Marine Corps approved the

Tentative Manual for Landing Operations, which included Chapter VI, "Aviation." In

January 1939, the General Board of the Navy restated Marine aviation's mission to

support the Fleet Marine Force.

 

14        Fleet Marine Force Manual (FMFM) 1-1, Campaigning (Washington, DC: U.S.

Marine Corps, 25 January 1990), 28. Additional reference to the Marine expeditionary

force as a warfighter, focused at the operational level, are contained in the Marine Corps

Long-Range Plan (MLRP) (Washington, DC: U.S. Marine Corps, July 1989) and the

MAGTF Master Plan (MMP) (Washington, DC: U.S. Marine Corps, July 1993).

Additional discussion of this concept is contained in "Who Fights the MAGTF?," a June

1992 article in Marine Corps Gazette by Marine Majors Curtis A. Munson and Dwight

Lyons.

 

15        Marine Corps Long-Range Plan (MLRP) (Washington, DC: U.S. Marine Corps,

July 1989), 4-6. For information on earlier missions of Marine aviation, see FMFRP 12-26,

particularly p. 3. FMFM 5-1, Organization and Function of Marine, Aviation

(Quantico, VA: U.S. Marine Corps, 16 October 1991), 1-2 and 2-1 reflect the concept of

the ACE supporting the MAGTF., FMFM 6 (Final Draft), Ground Combat Operations

(Quantico, VA: U.S. Marine Corps, December 1994), 1-2, includes the statement, "The

ACE is a combat arm of the MAGTF, not a supporting arm of the GCE." The Marine

Corps            officially adopted maneuver warfare in March 1989, with the approval of FMFM 1,

Warfighting.

 

16        Joint Pub 3-0, Doctrine for Joint Operations (Washington, DC: Joint Chiefs of

Staff, 9            September 1993), IV-12.

 

 

                                                                                    Notes

 

 

17        The Honorable Mi. Sean O'Keefe, Secretary of the Navy; ADM Frank B. Kelso,

USN; and Gen Carl E. Mundy, Jr., USMC; Navy and Marine Corps White Paper, "...From

the Sea" (Washington, DC: Department of the Navy, September 1992), 7. These

operational capabilities are also discussed in, Naval Doctrine Publication (NDP) 1, Naval

Warfare (Washington, DC: Department of the Navy, 28 March 1994), 61-70; and FMFM

5-60, Control of Aircraft and Missiles (Quantico, VA: U.S. Marine Corps, 22 June

1993), 2-15. The Marine Corps was the first to define these terms, in FMFM 5-60

initially, followed by FMFRP 0-14, Marine Corps Supplement to the DOD Dictionary of

Military and Associated Terms (Quantico, VA: U.S. Marine Corps, 27 January 1994).

 

18        For an additional discussion of organizational concepts and supported/supporting

relationships, see Joint Pub 0-2, Unified Action Armed Forces (UNAAF) (Washington,

DC: Joint Chiefs of Staff, 11 August 1994); Joint Pub 3-0, Doctrine for Joint Operations;

and GEN Colin L. Powell, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, CM-1502-92, 23

November 1992, A Doctrinal Statement of Selected Joint Operational Concepts.

 

                                               

                                                            Aviation and Maneuver Warfare

 

 

1          B. H. Liddell Hart, The German Generals Talk (New York: William Morrow and

Co, 1948), 16.

 

2          B. H. Liddell Hart, Thoughts of War (London: Faber and Faber, 1944), xiv.

 

3          FMFM 1, Warfighting, 58.

 

4          FMFM 1, Warfighting, focuses on these same concepts. Martin van Creveld

identifies six elements of maneuver warfare in Chapter 1 of Air Power and Maneuver

Warfare: tempo, Schwerpunkt (main effort), surprise, combined arms, flexibility, and

decentralized command.

 

5          See Marine Corps Long-Range Plan (MLRP) 4-6; MAGTF Master Plan (MMP)

(Washington, DC: U.S. Marine Corps, July 1991), A-2-6; and MAGTF Master Plan

(MMP) (Washington, DC: U.S. Marine Corps,, July 1993), 4-5. The ACE as a

maneuver force is also mentioned in FMFM 5-50, Antiair Warfare (Quantico, VA: U.S.

Marine Corps, 22 June 1994), 4-5 and FMFM 5-60, Control of Aircraft and Missiles

(Quantico, VA: U.S. Marine Corps, 22 June 1993), 1-1. Martin van Creveld's book, Air

Power  and Maneuver Warfare, elaborates on new "vistas" offered by aviation and

maneuver warfare on p. 206: "In terms of combined arms symbiosis, ground forces

compel enemy forces into reactive movements. As a result, it is not necessary for friendly

air to achieve many kills; all it must do is to slow down the enemy's tempo of operations

(by attrition, disruption, and prevention of timely movements and junctures of units) so

that friendly ground forces can pin, envelop, and breakup opposing forces."

 

 

 

                                                                                    Notes

 

 

 

Discussions of the ACE as a maneuver element appear in numerous Marine Corps Gazette

articles. They include: "The Art of MAGTF Warfare," by Maj R. Scott Moore, USMC,

April 1989; "Maneuver Warfare: Can the ACE Adopt This Philosophy of War?," by

Marine Majors Gordon C. O'Neill and Daniel A. Driscoll, Jr., May 1991; "The ACE is not

a Maneuver Element-Yet," by Maj William H. Dixon, Jr., USMC, February 1992; and

"Air as a Maneuver Element: An Idea Whose Time Has Come?," by Maj Thomas X.

Hammes, USMC, February 1992.

 

6          FMFM 1, Warfighting, 71.

 

7          See FMFM 5-50, Antiair Warfare (Quantico, VA: U.S. Marine Corps, 22 June

1994), 4-5, FMFM 5-60, Control of Aircraft and Missiles (Quantico, VA: U.S. Marine

Corps, 22 June 1993), 2-15; and FMFM 5-70 (Final Draft), MAGTF Aviation Planning

(Quantico, VA: U.S. Marine Corps, June 1994), 1-1.

 

8          Guilio Douhet, The Command of the Air, trans. Dino Ferrari, reprinted by the

Office of Air Force History (Washington, DC: Office of Air Force History, 1983), 70.

 

9          Martin van Creveld, Air Power and Maneuver Warfare (Maxwell AFB, AL: Air

University Press, July 1994), 39 and 206. Van Creveld outlines the ability of aviation to

" strike deep into the rear of an enemy counterattack to protect a long, exposed flank." He

cites as an example the use of the Luftwaffe to blunt a Polish counterattack in Poland in

1939.   The task fell to the Luftwaffe because German armored forces were too faraway to

help. He further elaborates by stating that maneuver gives aviation two unique missions:

"(1) to protect the Ranks of thrust-line forces from blinding counterstrokes and (2) to

protect against wide circling envelopments from remote routes." He states that ground

forces could perform this missions by "positioning forces everywhere, but the resource

cost would be considerable. Only air power can screen and bring concentrated firepower

rapidly and accurately to bear."

 

10        Col Michael M. Kurth, USMC, Executive Officer, Marine Corps Air Station,

Tustin, CA, telephone interview by author, 17 March 1995. Then Lt Col Kurth was the

Commanding Officer of HMLA 369 during the Persian Gulf War, receiving the Navy

Cross for his actions. Maj Scott P. Haney, USMC, a Cobra helicopter pilot during the

war, provided additional information concerning Task Force Cunningham in a personal

interview on 13 March 1995.

 

11        Wesley F. Craven and James L. Cates, eds., The Army Air Forces in World War II,

Volume Three, Europe: Argument to VE Day January 1944 to May 1945 (Chicago:

Univ. of Chicago Press, 1949), 373.

 

                                                                        Notes

 

12        Sir John Slessor, The Central Blue: Recollections and Reflections (London:

Cassell and Company, Ltd., 1956), 597.

 

13        Frido Von Senger und Etterlin, Neither Fear Nor Hope (New York: E. P. Dutton,

1964), 224; cited by F. M. Sallagar, Operation "STRANGLE" (Italy, Spring): A Case

Study of Tactical Air Interdiction (Santa Monica, CA: Rand, February 1972), 66.

 

14        Robert L. Futrell, The United States Air Force in Korea 1950-1953 (New York:

Duell, Sloan, and Pearce, 1961), 435. Ten months after Operation STRANGLE began,

the new Supreme Commander in Korea, GEN Matthew B. Ridgway, USA, thought the

enemy  had "a substantially greater potential than at any time in the past." The

Commandant of the Marine Corps, Gen Lemuel C. Shepherd, stated that Operation

STRANGLE was "recognized as a fizzle."

 

15        See FMFM 1-1, Campaigning; and Joint Pub 3-0, Doctrine for Joint Operations

for an in-depth discussion of campaigning.

 

16        E. J. Kingston McCloughry, The Direction of War (New York: Praeger, 1955),

85; cited by William W. Momyer, Air Power in Three Wars (Washington, DC: GPO,

1979), 165.

 

17        B. H. Liddell Hart, ed., The Rommel Papers (New York: Harcourt and Brace,

1953), 476-477.

 

18            Sherrod, 132-133.

 

19            FMFRP 12-34-II, History of the US. Marine Corps Operations in World War II.

Isolation of Rabaul, Volume II (reprint of 1971 edition) (Quantico, VA: U. S. Marine

Corps, 16 August 1989), 537. Part V covers Marine aviation's role extensively.

 

20        See Heinz Guderian, Panzer Leader (Washington, DC: Zenger Publishing, 1952)

for an account of Guderian's actions at the battle for Sedan, France in May 1940.

 

21        Earl H. Tilford, SETUP: What the Air Force Did in Vietnam and Why (Maxwell

AFB, AL: Air University Press, 1991), 122.

 

 

 

                                                                                    Notes

 

 

                                                                        Combat Operations

 

1          MG Verne D. Mudge, USA, in Marine Aviation in Close Support File, cited in

FMFRP 12-34-IV, History of the U.S. Marine Corps Operations in World War II.

Western Pacific Operations, Volume IV (reprint of 1971 edition) (Quantico, VA: U.S.

Marine Corps, 16 August 1989), 347. Also see Mersky, U.S. Marine Corps Aviation, pp.

106-107. Mudge was the commander of the 1st Cavalry Division.

 

2          Maj Archie J. Clapp, USMC, "Their Mission is Mobility," Military Review, Vol

XXXIII, No. 5 (August 1953), 12. FMFM 5-30, Assault Support (Quantico, VA: U.S.

Marine Corps, 24 June 1994) provides details on Marine Corps helicopter employment.

 

3            FMFRP 12-26, Marine Corps Aviation: General, 1940, (reprint of 1940 edition),

40.

 

4          Lind, 20. Lind elaborates that in maneuver warfare, "firepower permits

movement (the attack of the assault units) and maneuver (the encirclement of the entire

enemy  force)."

 

5          Maj Gen James M. Myatt, USMC, "Close Air Support and Fire Support in

Operation Desert Shield and Desert Storm," a report submitted to the Commission on

Roles and Missions of the Armed Forces, 8 December 1994.

 

6          FMFM 1-1, Campaigning 62-63. See p. 246 of van Creveld's Air Power and

Maneuver Warfare for a further discussion of aviation's missions in maneuver warfare.

It mentions use of aviation to "strike the primary blows, screen surface maneuver forces,

destroy or delay enemy counterattacks, support surface forces in contact, provide

comprehensive surveillance and reconnaissance, resupply isolated forces, prevent resupply

of enemy forces, insert surface forces at critical points--just about anything you can

imagine." The ability of aviation to shift from one of these roles to another more rapidly

than any other force is also put forth.

 

7          FMFM 1, Warfighting, 37.

 

8          FMFM 1, Warfighting, 59.

 

9            NAVMC 2890, Small Wars Manual, (reprint of 1940 edition), (Washington, DC:

U.S. Marine Corps, 1 April 1987), Chapter IX, 20.

 

10            Kenneth R. Whiting, "Soviet Air-Ground Coordination," in Case Studies in the

Development of Close Air Support, ed. Benjamin Franklin Cooling (Washington, DC:

Office of Air Force History, 1990), 117, 124, and 133.

 

 

 

                                                                                    Notes

 

11        Brigadier Peter Young, ed., World Almanac Book of World War II (London:

Bison Books, Ltd., 1981), 67-76.

 

 

                                                Military Operations Other Than War

 

 

1          LTC James M. Willey, USA, Collective Engagement, Peacekeeping, and

Operations Other Than War, Individual Study Project, U.S. Army War College (Carlisle

Barracks, PA: 5 April 1993), Abstract Page.

 

2          Maj Shimon Stone, USMC and Capt James A. Hogberg, USMC, Humanitarian

Assistance: Adapting the Process to Meet the Military's Evolving Role in Non

Traditional Missions, MS Thesis (Monterey, CA: Naval Postgraduate School, December,

1993), 113.

 

3          Joint Pub 3-07 (Draft), Joint Doctrine for Military Operations Other Than War

(Washington, DC: Joint Chiefs of Staff, 18 July 1994), I-7. Joint Pub 3-0, Doctrine for

Joint Operations, also discusses the range of military options. See Joint Pub 3-07.3, Joint

Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures for Peacekeeping Operations, 29 April 1994, for

specifics on peacekeeping.

 

4            NAVMC 2890, Small Wars Manual (reprint of 1940 edition) provides some of

these enduring applications. For more on the tactical side of operations other than war,

see MAJ John M. Kelley, USA, Tactical Implications for Peacemaking in an Ethnic

Conflict, Monograph, School of Advanced Military Studies, U.S. Army Command and

General Staff College (Fort Leavenworth, KS: 4 February 1993).

 

5          Willey, 4.

 

6          Maj R. Bruce Rember, USAF, Wings for Peace: Air Power in Peacemaking

Operations, Monograph, School of Advanced Military Studies, U.S. Army Command and

General Staff College (Fort Leavenworth, KS: 17 December 1992). Maj Rember

provides some interesting discussion on the use of aviation in operations other than war.

 

7          Stone and Hogberg, 35.

 

 

                                                                        Conclusion

 

1          1st Lt Alfred A. Cunningham, USMC, "Aviation in the Navy," Marine Corps

Gazette (December 1916), 334.

 

 

 

                                                                           Notes

 

 

2          T. R. Fehrenbach, This Kind of War (New York: MacMillan, 1963), 427.

 

3             NAVMC 2890, Small Wars Manual, (reprint of 1940 edition), Chapter IX,. 1.

 

4          Maj Alfred A. Cunningham, USMC, "The Value of Aviation to the Marine

Corps," Marine Corps Gazette (September 1920), 223.

 

5          U.S. Department of Defense, Conduct of the Persian Gulf War: Final Report to

Congress, Pursuant to Title V of the Persian Gulf Conflict Supplemental Authorization

and Personnel Benefits Act of 1991 (Public Law 102 -25), Chapters I through VIII

(Washington, DC: GPO, April 1992), xiv.

 

6          Maj Gen James M. Myatt, USMC, "Close Air Support and Fire Support in

Operation Desert Shield and Desert Storm," a report submitted to the Commission on

Roles and Missions of the Armed Forces, 8 December 1994, 6. Maj Gen Myatt

commanded the 1st Marine Division in the Persian Gulf War.1

 

                                                                        Appendix A

 

                                                             Policy Command and Control

                                                                of USMC TACAIR in

                                                            Sustained Operations Ashore

 

 

 

Joint Pub 0-2, Unified Action Armed Forces (UNAAF) contains the "Policy for Command and

 

Control of USMC TACAIR in Sustained Operations Ashore." The policy deals with

 

MAGTF aviation during sustained operations ashore:

 

 

 

            The MAGTF commander will retain operational control of organic air assets. The

 

            primary mission of the MAGTF air combat element is the support of the MAGTF

 

            ground element.1 During joint operations, the MAGTF air assets will normally be

 

            in support of the MAGTF mission. The MAGTF commander will make sorties

 

            available to the joint force commander, for tasking through the joint force air

 

            component commander, for air defense, long-range interdiction, and long-range

 

            reconnaissance. Sorties in excess of MAGTF direct support requirements will be

 

            provided to the joint force commander for tasking through the joint force air

 

            component commander for the support of other components of the joint force or

 

            the joint force as a whole. Nothing herein shall infringe on the authority of the

 

            theater or joint force commander in the exercise of operational control, to assign

 

            missions, redirect efforts (e.g., the reapportionment and/or reallocation of any

 

            Marine Air-Ground Task Force (MAGTF) TACAIR sorties when it has been

 

            determined by the joint force commander that they are required for higher priority

 

            missions), and direct coordination among the subordinate commanders to ensure

 

            unity of effort in accomplishment of the overall mission, or to maintain integrity of

 

            the force.

 

 

 

            NOTE: Sorties provided for air defense, long-range interdiction, and long-range

 

            reconnaissance are not "excess" sorties and will be covered in the ATO. These

 

            sorties provide a distinct contribution to the overall joint force effort. The JFC

 

            must exercise integrated control of air defense, long-range reconnaissance, and

 

            long-range interdiction aspects of the joint operation or theater campaign. Excess

 

            sorties are in addition to these sorties.

 

 

 

________________________

1 The primary mission of MAGTF aviation is to support the entire MAGTF--not just the ground

 

element.

 

 

 

                                                                        Appendix B

 

                                                                         GLOSSARY

battlespace--All aspects of air, surface, subsurface, land, space, and electromagnetic spectrum

which encompass the area of influence and area of interest. (FMFRP 0-14)

 

battlespace dominance--The degree of control over the dimensions of the battlespace which

enhances friendly freedom of action and denies enemy freedom of action. It permits force

sustainment and application of power projection to accomplish the full range of tactical missions.

It includes all actions conducted against enemy capabilities to influence future operations.

(FMFRP 0-14)

 

centers of gravity--Those characteristics, capabilities, or localities from which a military force

derives its freedom of action, physical strength, or will to fight. (Joint Pub 1-02)

 

close operations--Military actions conducted to project power decisively against enemy forces

which pose an immediate or near term threat to the success of current battles or engagements.

These military actions are conducted by committed forces and their readily available tactical

reserves, using maneuver and combined arms. (FMFRP 0-14)

 

coalition force--A force composed of military elements of nations that have formed a temporary

alliance for some specific purpose. (Joint Pub 1-02)

 

combined force--A military force composed of elements of two or more allied nations. (Joint

Pub 102)

 

combined arms--The tactics, techniques, and procedures employed by a force to integrate

firepower and mobility to produce a desired effect upon the enemy. (FMFRP 0-14)

 

commander's intent--The commander's intent describes the desired end state. It is a concise

expression of the purpose of the operation. It may include how the posture of units at that end

state facilitates future operations. It may also include the commander's assessment of the enemy

commander's intent. The commander's intent is not, however, a summary of the concept of

operations. (Joint Pub 3-0, p. III-33) There are two parts to a mission: the task to be

accomplished and the reason, or intent. The task describes the action to be taken while the intent

describes the desired result of the action. Of the two, the intent is predominant. While a situation

may change, making the task obsolete, the intent is more permanent and continues to guide our

actions. Understanding our commander's intent allows us to exercise initiative in harmony with

the commander's desires. The intent should convey the commander's vision. The senior must

make perfectly clear the result he expects, but in such a way that does not inhibit initiative.

Subordinates must have a clear understanding of what their commander is thinking. Further, they

should understand the intent of the commander two levels up. (FMFM 1, pp. 71-72)

 

critical enemy vulnerability--Of all the vulnerabilities we might choose to exploit, some are

more critical to the enemy than others. It follows that the most effective way to defeat our enemy

is to destroy that which is most critical to him. We should focus our efforts on the one thing

which, if eliminated, will do the most decisive damage to his ability to resist us....Therefore, we

should focus our efforts against a critical enemy vulnerability. (FMFM 1, under "Exploiting

Vulnerability and Opportunity", pp. 35-36) Note: Doctrine Division, MCCDC recommended

that the term "critical enemy vulnerability" not be used, and "critical vulnerability" be used to

describe that weak point within a "center of gravity" which can be exploited. They also

recommended that term "decisive point" be used to define it as a catalytic geographic feature.

 

culminating point--In the offense, the culminating point is the point in time and space at which

an attacker's combat power no longer exceeds that of the defender. A defensive culminating point

is the point in time and space when the defending force no longer has the capability to go on the

counteroffensive or defend successfully. (Joint Pub 3-0, p. III-29)

 

decisive point--Decisive points are usually geographic in nature, such as a constricted sea lane, a

hill, a town, or an air base. They could also include other elements such as command posts,

critical boundaries, airspace, or a communications node. Decisive points are not centers of

gravity; they are the keys to attacking protecting centers of gravity. (Joint Pub 3-0, pp. III-28 to

III-29)

 

deep operations--Military actions conducted against enemy capabilities which pose a potential

threat to friendly forces. These military actions are designed to isolate, shape, and dominate the

battlespace and influence future operations. (FMFRP 0-14)

 

force sustainment--Capabilities, equipment, and operations which ensure continuity, freedom of

action, logistics support, and command and control. (FMFRP 0-14)

 

joint force--A general term applied to a force composed of significant elements, assigned or

attached, of two or more Military Departments, operating under a single joint force commander.

(Joint Pub 1-02 as modified by Joint Pub 0-2)

 

joint force air component commander--The joint force air component commander derives

authority from the joint force commander who has the authority to exercise operational control,

assign missions, direct coordination among subordinate commanders, redirect and organize forces

to ensure unity of effort in the accomplishment of the overall mission. The joint force commander

will normally designate a joint force air component commander. The joint force air component

commander's responsibilities will be assigned by the joint force commander (normally these would

include, but not be limited to, planning, coordination, allocation, and tasking based on the joint

force commander's apportionment decision). Using the joint force commander's guidance and

authority, and in coordination with other Service component commanders and other assigned and

supporting commanders, the joint force air component commander will recommend to the joint

force commander apportionment of air sorties to various missions or geographic areas. Also

called JFACC. (Joint Pub 1-02)

 

main effort--The most important task to be accomplished by the force. It is assigned by the

commander to a specifically designated subordinate unit. The commander ensures the success of

the main effort by providing it the preponderance of support and by alerting reserves to rapidly

reinforce the main effort or, if necessary, to assume the main effort. (FMFRP 0- 14)

 

maneuver--The traditional understanding of maneuver is a spatial one; that is, we maneuver in

space to gain a positional advantage. However, in order to maximize the usefulness of maneuver,

we must consider maneuver in time as well; that is, we generate a faster operational tempo than

the enemy to gain a temporal advantage. (FMFM 1, p. 58) Thus, maneuver is more accurately

defined as the employment of forces within the battlespace through movement in combination

with fire, or fire potential, to achieve a position of advantage in time or space in respect to the

enemy in order to accomplish the mission.

 

maneuver warfare--A philosophy for action that seeks to collapse the enemy's cohesion and

effectiveness through a series of rapid, violent, and unexpected actions which create a turbulent

and rapidly deteriorating situation with which he cannot cope. (FMFRP 0-14)

 

Marine air-ground task force--A task organization of Marine forces (division, aircraft wing, and

service support groups) under a single command and structured to accomplish a specific mission.

The Marine airground task force (MAGTF) components will normally include command,

aviation combat, ground combat, and combat service support elements (including Navy Support

Elements). Three types of Marine airground task forces which can be task organized are the

Marine expeditionary unit, Marine expeditionary brigade [Marine expeditionary force (forward)],

and Marine expeditionary force. The four elements of a Marine air-ground task force are: a.

command element (CE)--The MAGTF headquarters. The CE is a permanent organization

composed of the commander, general or executive and special staff sections, headquarters

section, and requisite communications and service support facilities. The CE provides command,

control, and coordination essential for effective planning and execution by the other three

elements of the MAGTF. There is only one CE in a MAGTF. b. aviation combat element

(ACE)--The MAGTF element that is task organized to provide all or a portion of the functions of

Marine Corps aviation in varying degrees based on the tactical situation and the MAGTF mission

and size. These functions are air reconnaissance, antiair warfare, assault support, offensive air

support, electronic warfare, and control of aircraft and missiles. The ACE is organized around an

aviation headquarters and varies in size from a reinforced helicopter squadron to one or more

Marine aircraft wing(s). It includes those aviation command (including air control agencies),

combat, combat support, and combat service support units required by the situation. Normally,

there is only one ACE in a MAGTF. c. ground combat element (GCE)--The MAGTF element

that is task organized to conduct ground operations. The GCE is constructed around an infantry

unit and varies in size from a reinforced infantry batalion to one or more reinforced Marine

division(s). Normally, there is only one GCE in a MAGTF. d. combat service support element

(CSSE)-The MAGTF element that is task organized to provide the full range of combat service

support necessary to accomplish the MAGTF mission. CSSE can provide supply, maintenance,

transportation, deliberate engineer, health, postal, disbursing, enemy prisoner of war, automated

information systems, exchange, utilities, legal, and graves registration services. The CSSE varies

in size from a Marine expeditionary unit (MEU) service support group (MSSG) to a force service

support group (FSSG). Normally, there is only one combat service support element in a

MAGTF. (Joint Pub 1-02)

 

operational level of war--The level of war at which campaigns and major operations are planned,

conducted, and sustained to accomplish strategic objectives within theaters or areas of operations.

Activities at this level link tactics and strategy by establishing operational objectives needed to

accomplish strategic objectives, sequencing events to achieve the operational objectives, initiating

actions, and applying resources to bring about and sustain these events. These activities imply a

broader dimension of time or space than do tactics; they ensure the logistic and administrative

support of tactical forces, and provide the means by whic tactical successes are exploited to

achieve strategic objectives. (Joint Pub 1-02)

 

power projection--The application of measured, precise offensive military force at a chosen time

and place, using maneuver and combined arms. (FMFRP 0-14)

 

rear operations--Military actions conducted to support and permit force sustainment and to

provide security for such actions. (FMFRP 0-14)

 

strategic level of war--The level of war at which a nation, often as a member of a group of

nations, determines national or multinational (alliance or coalition) security objectives and

guidance, and develops and uses national resources to accomplish these objectives. Activities at

this level establish national and multinational military objectives; sequence initiatives; define limits

and assess risks for the use of military and other instruments of national power; develop global

plans or theater war plans to achieve these objectives; and provide military forces and other

capabilities in accordance with strategic plans. (Joint Pub 1-02)

 

supporting arms--Air, sea, and land weapons of all types employed to support ground units.

(Joint Pub 1-02)

 

tactical level of war--The level of war at which battles and engagements are planned and

executed to accomplish military objectives assigned to tactical units or task forces. Activities at

this level focus on the ordered arrangement and maneuver of combat elements in relation to each

other and to the enemy to achieve combat objectives. (Joint Pub 1-02)

 

 

 

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