Better High Frequency Communications
AUTHOR Major Michael G. Chlebik, USMC
CSC 1990
SUBJECT AREA C4
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
TITLE: BETTER HIGH FREQUENCY COMMUNICATIONS
THESIS: Through improved planning of high frequency spectrum
usage, the MAGTF Commander can achieve better command and
control through his use of high frequency communication
links.
ISSUE: Marine Corps units spend an inordinate amount of
time trying to perfect high frequency (HF) communications in
the field. Planning usually starts with a request to the
Electromagnetic Compatibility Analysis Center (ECAC) for
frequency predictions. As many items of information must be
provided with the request, and not much information is
available early in the planning cycle, the received answer
is of little value. Frequency assignments are handed out
next, after a poorly submitted unit request. The unit
deploys to the field, and a Chirpsounder, if available,
reflects a far different picture than the unit planned for.
As a result, the unit cannot communicate. The Commander
does not see communications serving command. Another tool
is available: Prophet. It is a propagation prediction
computer program that can assist the communicator in
planning near-vertical incidence sky-wave (NVIS)
transmissions needed for over-the-horizon (OTH)
communications.
CONCLUSIONS: Prophet has quick and accurate tools to get
the Commander the answers he needs. It provides problem
solving capabilities that evaluate his communications
situation, and provides him with simple graphic products
that give him real insight into problems of successfully
communicating while avoiding enemy signal interception. The
Chirpsounder transmitter is an easily isolated and
identifiable target. The Commander must carefully consider
sounder use on the battlefield. ECAC frequency predictions
are available by message or letter request. The HF
predictions provide only a ballpark figure. The predictions
may not be received in a timely fashion to support the
Commander in an age of maneuver warfare.
RECOMMENDATIONS: The Marine Corps should teach Prophet in
its University--let the HF planning mistakes be made on
paper in the classroom, not during operations in the field.
BETTER HIGH FREQUENCY COMMUNICATIONS
OUTLINE
THESIS STATEMENT. Through improved planning of high
frequency spectrum usage, the MAGTF Commander can achieve
better command and control through his use of high frequency
communication links.
I. High Frequency History
A. Marine Corps Usage
B. Fundamentals
II. Tools of the Trade
A. Chirpsounder
B. Prophet
C. Frequency Predictions
III. Planning Example I
A. Tactical Scenario
B. Communications Mission Analysis
C. Prophet Usage
D. Sounder Usage
IV. Planning Example II
A. Tactical Scenario
B. Communications Mission Analysis
C. Prophet Usage
D. Sounder Usage
V. Comparison
VI. Conclusion
BETTER HIGH FREQUENCY COMMUNICATIONS
Dear Ann:
Why do I so often desire the best communications?
And why do I so seldom get them?--Dilemma of a
FMF Commander
Dear Commander:
Commanders should be counseled chiefly by persons
of known talent, by those who have made the art of
war their particular study, and whose knowledge is
derived from experience, by those who are present at
the scene of action, who see the enemy, who see the
advantages that occasions offer, and who, like people
embarked in the same ship, are sharers of the danger.
If, therefore, anyone thinks himself qualified to
give advice respecting the war which I am to conduct--
let him not refuse the assistance to the State, but
let him come with me into Macedonia.
He shall be furnished with a ship, a tent, even his
traveling charges will be defrayed, but if he thinks
this is too much trouble, and prefers the repose of a
city life to the toils of war, let him not on land
assume the office of a pilot. The city in itself
furnishes abundance of topics for conversation. Let
it confine its passion for talking to its own
precincts and rest assured that we shall pay no
attention to any councils but such as shall be framed
within our camp.--Gen. Paulus (229?-160 B.C.) Rome 1
High Frequency (HF) radio continues to play a critical
role in the communications architecture for the needs of the
Marine Corps. The reliability of HF nets is governed by
personnel training, equipment employed, outages directly
related to changes and conditions of the ionosphere, and
actions of enemy radioelectronic combat (REC) units.
However, the standard HF communications techniques used in
the past by the Marine Corps will not support the widely
deployed over-the-horizon (OTH) amphibious assault. The
standard HF communications techniques will not benefit the
fast-moving formations of maneuver warfare ashore the Marine
Corps expects to use to counter the modern threat. Linked
closely with this are the problems that can be expected in
deploying multichannel line-of-sight (LOS) systems with
relays (retransmission sites) to keep up with fast-paced
present and future operations. Thus high frequency radio
and the near-vertical incidence sky-wave (NVIS) mode of
propagation assume significant importance for the Marine
Air-Ground Task Force (MAGTF) Commander.
Besides improved communications, using mobile NVIS
propagation also can result in several significant military
advantages for the Commander, as noted by LTC Fiedler:
. . .since all radiated energy returns to earth from
above at approximately the same signal strength,
direction finding on the signal becomes very
difficult, and the probability of intercept and
detection is greatly reduced, . . . because of the
size, shape, and vertical direction of radiation,
communications equipment can be hidden in depressions
and under cover, thus making it harder to find. In
fact, the criteria for selection of HF radio
communications sites will have to be revised, because
mobile NVIS will make possible the selection of much
more survivable sites than those used today. . .studies
by the [Army's] Armor Center have shown that often
the first item detected on a vehicle with the engine
off is the vertical radio antenna; a NVIS antenna can
be made flat and is much harder to detect. . .horizontal
mobile antennas do not have a spear-like construction,
which in the past has caused injury and even death to
U.S. troops.2
Through improved planning of HF spectrum usage, the MAGTF
Commander can achieve better command and control through his
use of HF communication links. His units will be harder to
find by physical recognition or electronic signature. His
communications will extend his "voice" on the battlefield in
the exercise of command and control. He will have the
electronic means to command and control, by using a minimum
of key, well-understood phrases, and by talking directly to
his key people.
What is NVIS for a Commander? HF NVIS propagation is
a process by which radio signals travel through the
atmosphere from one antenna to another. Normally HF
communications are accomplished by either ground-wave or
sky-wave propagation. With current low-powered man-pack
radios, ground-wave communications, the transmission of a
radio signal along or near the surface of the earth, can be
established and maintained out to 20-30 kilometers (km.).
High powered equipment (mounted in jeeps or vans) can extend
this range to 80-100 km. These limited ranges impact the
Commander's ability to command and control those units
assigned to him. The coverage from sky-wave communications,
on the other hand, can vary from several kilometers to
thousands of kilometers.
Beyond the range covered by a ground-wave signal, sky-
wave propagation is possible because of the bending of the
radio signal by a region of the atmosphere called the
ionosphere. The ionosphere is an electrically charged
(ionized) region of the atmosphere that extends from about
60 km. to 1000 km. above the earth's surface. The
ionization results from energy from the sun and causes radio
signals to return to earth. The bending of a radio signal
by the ionosphere depends on the frequency of the radio
signal, the degree of ionization in the ionosphere, and the
angle at which the radio signal strikes the ionosphere.
Now, Commander, this is what you need to do. You have
already realized that to command and control your units, you
must have reliable communications with them. It's your
communicator's job to establish and maintain communications
for your unit. After all, the primary purpose of
communications is to serve the command. The Commandant of
the Marine Corps says:
Technology can enhance the ways and means of war by
improving man's ability to wage it, but technology
cannot and should not attempt to eliminate man from
the process of war. Better equipment is not the cure
for all ills; doctrinal and tactical solutions to
combat deficiencies must also be sought. 3
Commander, you must become more involved. The doctrinal and
tactical solutions to communications deficiencies must be
found. The locations of the communications sites will be
very important in determining the success of your
communications. The best positions within range for your
communications sites must be found. You have been assigned
certain communications equipments within your unit's Table
of Equipment (T/E). The best equipments to use for a
particular situation must be determined. The power, antenna
and modulation type for each transmitter must be determined.
The antenna for each receiver must be found out. You have
been allocated a set of frequencies by higher headquarters.
From these frequencies you must select the best ones for the
priorities of communications that you have established.
Also, Commander, this is what you need to watch. You
need to account for physical factors that affect
communications. HF communications are affected by many
factors, such as distance, time of day, season, latitude and
solar storms. Understanding the importance of these
conditions will help you command and control ("make the
links work") in the face of adverse conditions. You need to
assess the vulnerability of your signals to hostile forces.
If the enemy can intercept your signals, they can monitor
your transmissions, figure out your location or disrupt your
communications by jamming. Perhaps you have allowed for the
submission of an essential element of information (EEI)
early in the Command and Staff Action Planning Sequence:
Determine the capability of the opposing force to
conduct electronic warfare operations in the MAGTF
Area of Influence. If so, with what sized units and
locations, and with what capability (meaconing,
intrusion, jamming, and/or interference). Special
attention to radioelectronic combat units operating
vicinity grid square AB12345678.
An EEl is information on enemy, terrain, or weather
essential to you to do your mission. You begin to focus on
the enemy and his ability to target your command, control
and communications facilities. You think where MAGTF
command and control weaknesses lie, and you protect your
weaknesses.
Command, control and communications (C3) countermeasures
(C3CM) is defined as the integrated use of physical
destruction, electronic warfare, operations security and
military deception, all supported by intelligence, with a
two-fold intent--degradation of enemy C3, and protection of
friendly C3 from enemy degradation. Because a weapons
system is much more than a piece of hardware within the
context of C3CM, an expanded definition of weapons system is
provided. The major components are the weapon itself, at
least one sensor associated with that hardware, and a
command and control subsystem with its supporting
communications to link the sensor information with the
weapon itself, and to control the weapon's actual
functioning. According to Littlebury:
The essence of C3CM is attacking the enemy's weapons
system in terms of its associated sensors and command
and control (counter C3), rather than the traditional
concept of attacking the weapon itself. Conversely,
protecting friendly C3 involves hardening our own
weapon system sensors and command and control against
enemy degradation. 4
Commander, there are many advantages in using the NVIS
concept. There is a lower probability of geolocation. NVIS
energy is received from the sky at very steep angles, which
make direction finding from nearby (but beyond ground-wave
range) locations more difficult. Communications are harder
to jam. Ground-wave jammers are subject to signal loss
along the path to your receiver. Terrain features can be
used to mitigate a ground-wave jammer without degrading the
desired friendly communications path. The jamming signal
will be reduced by terrain while the sky-wave NVIS path loss
will be constant. This will force the jammer to move very
close to the target receiver or put out more power. Either
tactic makes jamming more difficult. Friendly operators can
use low-power successfully. The NVIS mode can be used
successfully with low-power HF radios. Commander, you begin
to practice C3CM as it relates to your command post's
electronic signature.
When communications outages occur, it is first necessary
to recognize that one has occurred, and then take actions
necessary to pass time sensitive (high precedence)
information by any means available. The tactical commander
must be provided the information he needs to fight and win.
Restoration actions may include supporting propagation over
the High Frequency path desired by changing the transmitting
frequency. The AN/TRQ-35(V) Chirpsounder can meet this
latter need by displaying those frequencies which are
presently propagating, and by displaying a summary of the
amount of time each channel has been used in either the last
5 or the last 30 minutes, whichever is desired. The
employment of the sounder system enables the operator to
observe a display of those frequencies which are actually
propagating and the mode(s) by which the propagation is
accomplished. The spectrum monitor allows the operator to
determine which frequencies are being used and how busy they
are. If it is determined that communications are possible
but are not gotten, an operator or equipment problem is
probably occurring.
The Chirpsounder has a transmitter, three receivers, and
a spectrum monitor. The transmitter and receiver are
located on opposite ends of the path being sounded. The
transmitter may be collocated with other communications
equipment or may be completely detached so long as it has
the required power source. Since its transmissions have a
distinct electronic signature and the radiated output has a
long "transmit on" time duration, the Chirpsounder
transmitter is an easily isolated and identifiable target.
After the receiver is established with power and an antenna,
time synchronization to the transmitter and initial
programming must be accomplished. Collocation of the
sounder receiver and spectrum monitor provides the operator
with the necessary information to enable selection of the
optimum frequencies from the viewpoint of received signal
strength and unused or minimally used frequencies.
Note that the U.S. Military Communications-Electronics
Board (USMCEB) has established a worldwide Chirpsounder
Directory in support of communications operations and
planning to promote common sounder transmitter use where
feasible. An AUTODIN Address Indicator Group (AIG) has been
established to distribute the initial directory and
subsequent changes. Your communicator can request this
information for planning purposes.
Commander, what can the Chirpsounder do for you? The
AN/TRQ-35(V) sounder system excels in a real-time, point-to-
point, noncovert environment. It also excels during periods
of abnormal propagation which are not modeled in a computer-
based predictive system. Employment of a chirpsounder is
mission oriented; only a sounder can deal with a post
nuclear environment. A predictive system lends itself to
the predictive and communication planning environment, and
is more flexible in assessing multiple circuits over a large
are, and can consider communication planning in a hostile
electronic warfare environment. One such system is Prophet.
The Advanced Prophet System is a propagation prediction
computer program which is designed to provide rapid user-
interactive predictions for circuits between any two points
on the earth's surface. The basic parameters are maintained
in a user-controllable scenario, which may be manipulated.
Sites are defined by name, latitude, longitude, antenna,
antenna bearing, transmit power, network, and speed. If
moving, destination latitude and longitude, and departure
date and time definitions are needed. Hostile sites are
members of an opposite network. A special module is used to
create only those antenna patterns desired by the user.
Skywave propagation characteristics are computed for a
single transmitter to receiver path, obtaining maximum
usable frequency (MUF), frequency of optimum traffic (FOT),
and lowest usable frequency (LUF) information. Site
latitude/longitude, date, time, frequency, and 10 cm. flux
or sunspot number (current sky conditions) are required
inputs. Some products also compute field strength or
signal-to-noise (S/N) values. This is where proper antenna
definitions and orientation are important. Other factors,
based on modulation type selected (e.g. voice, FAX), are
bandwidth and required signal-to-noise ratio for successful
communications.
Ground-wave propagation is computed from antenna
heights, polarization, terrain type (or ground conductivity
and dielectric constant), and if land, surface cover, or if
sea-water, wind velocity, for surface roughness. Noise, for
both ground-wave and sky-wave propagation, is computed based
on a user-selected man-made noise type, and if enabled,
atmospheric noise.
All computer modules use different combinations of the
above computations, and either process a single transmitter
to receiver path or multiple paths to generate a display
output. Some products also will use a hostile site
designation, which is explained in detail in the on-line
help function for those products. The Advanced Prophet
system is designed to be largely self-tutorial by use of an
on-line help command.
There are restrictions on use of Prophet, according to
the Navy:
The Advanced Prophet system contains information and
capability subject to the International Traffic in
Arms Regulation (ITAR) or the Export Administration
Regulation (EAR) of 1979 which may not be exported,
released, or disclosed to any foreign nationals inside
or outside the United States without express permission
from Chief of Naval Operations under any circumstances. 5
Commander, what can Prophet do for you? Your
communicator uses Prophet because it help him make important
recommendations in setting up and operating communications
links. Prophet has quick and accurate tools to get you the
answers you need. It provides problem solving capabilities
that evaluate your communications situation, and provides
you with simple graphic products that give you real insight
into problems of successfully communicating while avoiding
enemy signal interception.
The HF sky-wave predictions produced by the
Electromagnetic Compatibility Analysis Center (ECAC) and
other Department of Defense activities are based on computer
programs developed by the National Telecommunication
Information Agency (NTIA) in Boulder, Colorado, and modified
by the individual agencies. These predictions are averaged
over a 30-day period and as such provide only a ballpark
figure. On any given day, the actual optimum frequencies
may be considerably above or below predicted values,
particularly during periods of high solar activity. ECAC's
propagation predictions are provided primarily by AUTODIN or
letter to the Marine Corps. The following information must
be provided to ECAC for propagation predictions:
1. Propagation mode (sky-wave or ground-wave)
2. Day, month, year of start, and end of transmission
3. Transmitter site name
4. Receiver site name
5. Transmitter and receiver site coordinates
[format varies]
6. Emission type (6K00B9W, etc.)
7. Transmitter power in watts
8. Type of earth at each antenna (sea water, desert,
marsh, average soil, etc.)
9. Type of man-made noise area (rural, suburban,
urban or industrial)
10. Antenna type (whip, doublet, AS-2259, etc.)
11. Antenna height and/or length, in feet or meters. 6
Commander, what can frequency predictions from ECAC do
for you? Your communicator knows that varying degrees of
operational support are available from ECAC, ranging from
propagation prediction support to complete and total
exercise or contingency communications engineering for areas
throughout the world, including:
l. More comprehensive propagation analysis (e.g.
calculation of S/Ns, signal level contours,
sky-wave or ground-wave comparisons, etc.)
2. Listing of frequencies currently in use for any
area of interest.
3. Antenna radiation patterns for most commonly used
types of antennas.
4. Frequency assignment and circuit routing
recommendations (based on propagation and
considerations).
5. Determination of antenna locations for best
coverage of beaches, object areas, or avenues
of approach, or for best shielding from unwanted
intercept.
6. Determination of the most reliable means of
communication between two points.
7. Radar coverage charts.
8. Terrain path profiles. 7
Commander, do you have time to make a request to ECAC for
support in your modern warfare environment? Do you have the
tools available for your communicator to plan communications
for you, now?
It is time to apply the HF communication tools discussed
above to a tactical scenario. Perhaps an Initiating
Directive has established Operation MOSSBACK, and provided
the following mission to an Amphibious Task Force (ATF)
comprised of Naval and Marine Corps forces:
Conduct an amphibious assault on Jutland, in
coordination with a counter-offensive by SACEUR
[Supreme Allied Commander, Europe], for the purpose
of establishing a beachhead to permit the landing of
follow-on forces, in order to threaten the northern
flank of Warsaw Pact. 8
As an early phase to this scenario, Marine Corps aviation
elements deploy from Continental United States (CONUS) to
advance bases in England in order to commence preassault
operations. The 2d Marine Aircraft Wing (MAW) Command
Element (CE) is at Elvington, United Kingdom (UK.).
Commander Landing Force (CLF) plans to establish his command
post (CP) vicinity Esbjerg, Denmark when he goes ashore. He
requires communications with his Aviation Combat Element
(ACE), 2d MAW. The communications mission analysis reveals
that satellite or HF communications are the most probable,
as the commercial telephone system in Denmark has been
rendered inoperable by the enemy. Although satellite
connectivity will be pursued by the communicator, channel
availability aboard the satellite may preclude access for
the ACE at this time. An attached satellite communications
team may not be familiar with their equipment to allow for
its use. Thus the initial communications requirement is to
determine the range of frequencies suitable for HF
communications between the CLF and ACE in order to request
frequencies that will propagate. The CLF's Planning
Guidance stated that HF communications were to be
ascertained for 0600 Universal Time (UT) on 30 April, 1990,
for planning.
Now, the communicator must answer the following:
1. If communications is required at 0600 UT, what is
the highest frequency that can be used? What is
the lowest frequency that can be used?
2. If a frequency of 8.0 Megahertz (Mhz) is the only
available frequency assigned for use, what time
of the day are communications possible?
A request for ECAC assistance is possible in this
scenario. Initially the ECAC HF Predictions Manual-
Supplement is researched to see if propagation planning has
been previously published by ECAC. Then a request is made
to ECAC for frequency predictions. As many items of
information must be provided with the request, and not much
information is available early in the planning cycle, the
received answer is of little value. Frequency assignments
are handed out, after a poorly submitted unit request.
Prophet usage is possible in this scenario. Recall it
is a propagation prediction computer program that can help
the communicator in planning near-vertical incidence sky-
wave (NVIS) transmissions needed for over-the-horizon (OTH)
communications. Figure 1 reflects the output of a Diurnal
plot. Observe that at 0600 UT, the highest frequency that
can be used is 9.7 Mhz, and the lowest frequency that can be
used is 2.8 Mhz. Figure 2 shows the result of a Raytrace
plot. Scrutinize that a single hop path exists around 50
degrees--an NVIS antenna should be used (dipole or
equivalent). Figure 3 displays the product of a Field
Strength plot. Study that communications are only possible
between 0400-0900 UT and 1600-1900 UT, because the signal-
to-noise content is greater than 10 during those times only.
Chirpsounder usage is possible in this scenario.
Previously established sounder transmitter locations in the
United Kingdom have been noted by the communicator. He
recognizes that the path from an actual sounder transmitter
site to Denmark is nearly identical with the path between
the ACE and CLF locations (Elvington, UK and Esbjerg,
Denmark, respectively). The CLF's communications element
takes a receiver and spectrum monitor ashore at Esbjerg; as
these are passive devices, no frequency clearance is
necessary. The Chirpsounder reflects a far different
picture than the unit planned for. As a result, the unit
cannot communicate. The Commander does not see
communications serving command. Let's modify the present
scenario by including elements from the G2's response to the
EEI previously stated. Recall the Commander asked the
Intelligence community to determine the capability of the
opposing force to conduct electronic warfare operations in
the MAGTF Area of Influence. The response back indicated
enemy intercept sites at Esbjerg, Hirtshal, Klitgard, and
Logstor, Denmark. The response also stated an enemy jamming
site at Moscow. Recall the CLF's Planning Guidance stated
that HF communications were to be ascertained for 0600 UT on
30 April, 1990, for planning.
Now, with a threat network established, the communicator
must answer the same questions:
1. If communications is required at 0600 UT, what is
the highest frequency that can be used? What is
the lowest frequency that can be used?
2. If a frequency of 8.0 Mhz is the only available
frequency assigned for use, what time of the day
are communications possible?
A request for ECAC assistance is not possible in this
scenario. The tempo of operations precludes receiving a
response to arrive in time to act upon it.
Prophet usage is possible in this scenario. Figure 4
reveals the output of an Area plot. Inquire that at 0600
UT, the communications ranges of both stations extend for
long distances. Earlier noted was that the stations may not
be in communications with each other at 0600 UT. Figure 5
introduces the output of a Secure plot. Gaze that at 0600
UT, the highest frequency that can be used is 9.0 Mhz, and
the lowest frequency that can be used is 8.0 Mhz. There are
no periods where the CLF's communications do not propagate
to intercept sites. The lightly hashed areas viewed
represent no direction finding is possible, although enemy
intercept is possible. For a frequency assignment of 8 Mhz,
no intercept-free communications are possible.
Chirpsounder usage is not possible in this scenario.
Although previously established sounder transmitter
locations in the United Kingdom were noted by the
communicator, he recognizes that the path from an actual
sounder transmitter site to this potential sounder receiver
site in Denmark is not what is needed. He cannot afford to
put a sounder transmitter at CLF's Command Post or with the
distant station, as the transmitter has a distinct
electronic signature and the radiated output has a long
"transmit on" time duration. As the Chirpsounder
transmitter is an easily isolated and identifiable target,
its use at CLF's Command Post or at the distant station
could subject those units to enemy C3 targeting. Although
CLF's communications element took a receiver and spectrum
monitor ashore at Esbjerg, they will not help him here.
Commander, the first scenario is the kind of problem you
experience in peacetime: point-to-point HF communications.
Typically there are too many excuses given when the
communications mission fails, rather than achieving mission
accomplishment. The reliability of HF nets is governed by
personnel training, equipment employed, outages related to
the ionosphere, and actions of enemy REC units. In this
planning example, you controlled the first two. The second
scenario is like those uncovered on deployments or war--the
threat is real. Actions of enemy REC units are not
controlled by you. If you do not train in peacetime for
their actions, what will you do in war?
Commander, you can have successful HF communications.
The reliability of HF nets is governed by personnel
training, equipment employed, outages related to the
ionosphere, and actions of enemy radioelectronic combat
(REC) units. Through improved planning of high frequency
spectrum usage, the MAGTF Commander can achieve better
command and control through his use of high frequency
communication links. Commander, you control the training.
Prophet has quick and accurate tools to get you the answers
you need. It provides problem solving capabilities that
evaluate your communications situation, and provides you
with simple graphic products that give you real insight into
problems of successfully communicating while avoiding enemy
signal interception. The Chirpsounder transmitter is an
easily isolated and identifiable target. You must carefully
consider sounder use on the battlefield. ECAC frequency
predictions are available by message or letter request. The
HF predictions provide only a ballpark figure. The
predictions may not be received in a timely fashion to
support you in an age of maneuver warfare. Commander--teach
Prophet. Let the HF planning mistakes be made on paper in
the classroom, not during operations in the field.
Click here to view image
FOOTNOTES
1Come With Me To Macedonia or Life in the American
Civil Service, p. 1.
2David M. Fiedler, LTC, ARNG, "Mobile NVIS: The New
Jersey Army National Guard Approach," Arms Communicator,
Vol. 12 (Fall, 1987), p. 10.
3A. M. Gray, Gen, USMC, Warfighting, (United States
Department of Defense, Headquarters, U.S. Marine Corps, FMFM
1, 1989), p. 53.
4F. E. Littlebury and D. K. Praeger, Invisible Combat:
C3CM A Guide For The Tactical Commander, (Armed Forces
Communications-Electronics Association International Press,
Washington, D.C., 1986), p. xii.
5Warning contained on Advanced Prophet Version 3.2
Executive Diskette, (United States Department of Defense,
Naval Ocean Systems Center, San Diego, CA., Dec., 1987).
6James L. Small, HF Predictions Manual, (United States
Department of Defense, Electromagnetic Compatibility
Analysis Center, Annapolis, MD., ECAC-CR-82-125, Nov.,
1982), p. 5/26.
7Small, p. 5-27.
8D. K. Roeber, Cmdr, USN, Amphibious Operations--
Operation MOSSBACK, (United States Department of Defense,
Marine Corps University, Quantico, VA., C(C)2600, 1990), p.
AS/C/3.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Chlebik, M. G., Maj, USMC, The Prophet Primer, (United
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2. Come With Me To Macedonia or Life in the American Civil
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3. Fiedler, David M., LTC, ARNG, "Mobile NVIS: The New
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Vol. 12 (Fall, 1987), pp. 6-10.
4. "Field Power Requirements For Micro Computers," CG I MEF
Naval message 130216Z Feb 1986.
5. Gray, A. M., Gen, USMC, Warfighting, (United States
Department of Defense, Headquarters, U.S. Marine Corps,
FMFM 1, 1989), pp. 1-88.
6. LaBahn, R. W., Operational Users Manual for Advanced
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Center, San Diego, CA., Technical Document 848, Aug.,
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C3CM A Guide For The Tactical Commander, (AFCEA
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