Military

a. Successful air assault execution is based on a careful analysis of METT-T and detailed, precise reverse planning. Five basic plans that comprise the reverse planning sequence are developed for each air assault operation. They are:

• The ground tactical plan.
• The landing plan.
• The air movement plan.
• The loading plan.
• The staging plan.

These plans should not be developed independently. They are coordinated and developed concurrently by the AATF staff to make best use of available time. The ground tactical plan is normally developed first and is the basis from which the other plans are derived.

b. Planning for air assault operations requires time - time to plan, time to prepare, and time to brief. The AATF uses the sequence of command and staff actions and troop leading procedures common to other combat operations.

c. Planning for air assault operations is as detailed as time permits and should include completion of written orders and plans. Within time constraints, the AATFC must carefully evaluate capabilities and limitations of the total force and develop a plan that ensures a high probability of success.

d. Often, however, the fleeting nature of tactical opportunities does not permit adequate planning time and the development of detailed written plans and orders. If time is limited, planning steps may be compressed or conducted concurrently; detailed written plans and orders may be supplanted by standing operating procedure or lessons learned in previous training. Previous training and the development of SOPs cannot be overemphasized. Units cannot expect to successfully conduct air assault operations, particularly with compressed planning time, without the benefit of previous training.

e. Many routine tasks related to air assault operations are accomplished above the AATF level. The division is the lowest echelon that can allocate assets, assign appropriate missions, gather required data, and analyze capabilities. For this reason, when an air assault mission is assigned by division, or higher level command, that headquarters begins the planning process. The division uses its resources to gather data and provides planning information to lower echelons, or division may complete the planning tasks itself. When the division does these tasks, subordinate commanders can expend their limited time to accomplish other key planning tasks.

f. When an infantry unit is given an air assault mission, the assigning echelon provides the latest extended weather forecast, up-to-date intelligence (with emphasis on known or suspected enemy air defense systems), initial fire planning, and many of the terrain considerations relevant to the operation. Additional information that is not provided may be requested and/or completed by the AATF. All echelons attempt to reduce the planning burden of subordinate units.

g. The battalion is the lowest level that has sufficient personnel to plan, coordinate, and control an air assault operation. When company-size operations are conducted, the bulk of the planning takes place at battalion and higher headquarters.

h. All tactical estimates used in troop leading procedures employ the factors of METT-T. The METT-T provides data that is analyzed using the estimate process and from which a decision is made. Applying the factors helps the commander isolate and address significant considerations that affect the mission. The factors of METT-T are considered in each phase of the estimate.

a. General factors to consider are:

b. When planning an air assault operation, the following factors about the enemy must be considered:

a. Observation and fields of fire. These considerations relate to both enemy and friendly forces and, for air assault operations, include:

b. Cover and concealment.

c. Obstacles and movement. While most obstacles can be bypassed by air assault forces, obstacles which affect the ground tactical plan must be considered.

d. Key terrain. Key terrain is mission-dependent; however, in air assault operations key terrain is not limited to that which influences the ground tactical plan. It must also be analyzed in terms of.

e. Avenues of approach. Air and ground avenues of approach are considered in both offensive and defensive operations from friendly and enemy viewpoints. A good avenue of approach for air assault forces offers:

f. Weather and visibility. Weather information is analyzed for trends (Figure 3-1). If the operation begins in marginal weather, the commander must consider the possibility that it will deteriorate below acceptable limits during the operation. This may result in an interruption of helicopter support and require changes in planned operations. Considerations include:

a. The AATF should have enough combat power to seize initial objectives and protect the LZs until follow-on echelons arrive in the objective area.

b. Assault (lift) helicopter capability is the single most important variable in determining how much combat power can be introduced into the objective area.

c. Aircrew endurance must be considered. For planning purposes, the AATFC should consider eight hours a day and four hours of night flying to be a safe limit for aircrews. If those limits are exceeded during a single period, then degraded aircrew performance can be expected on the following days.

a. The time available for preparation, planning, and rehearsals is crucial. Air assault planning must be centralized and precise, and normally takes more time than that for other operations.

b. Normally, additional planning time must be allotted for night operations and those involving multiple PZs and/or multiple LZs.

c. The AATFC must allow adequate time to ensure that all subordinates, particularly aircrews, are thoroughly briefed. Briefing time is significantly reduced by viable SOPs and previous training.

d. The AMC must be provided time to brief and totally integrate all aviation units.

a. Signal security. This includes:

b. Information security. Plans and orders must be safeguarded; information must be limited to those with a need to know.

c. Deception operations. It is often appropriate and necessary for the AATFC to employ deception operations to ensure the success of his mission. They may include:

d. Passive security. This includes camouflage, countersurveillance, noise and light discipline, warning devices, and rapid troop insertions, plus:

e. Active security. These measures include employment of patrols, observation post, and reconnaissance. In air assault operations, active security measures include:

a. The ground tactical plan for an air assault operation contains essentially the same elements as any other infantry attack but differs in that it is prepared to capitalize on speed and mobility in order to achieve surprise. Assault echelons are placed on or near the objective and organized so as to be capable of immediate seizure of objectives and rapid consolidation for subsequent operations. If adequate combat power cannot be introduced quickly into the objective area, then the air assault force must land away from the objective and build up combat power. The air assault force then assaults like any other infantry unit and the effectiveness of the air assault operation is diminished.

b. The scheme of maneuver may assume a variety of possibilities depending on the commander's evaluation of METT-T including, in particular, the availability of LZs in the area. The plan should include:

a. The landing plan must support the ground tactical plan. This plan sequences elements into the area of operations, ensuring that units arrive at designated locations and times prepared to execute the ground tactical plan.

b. General considerations in developing the landing plan are:

a. Selection criteria. Landing zones are selected by the AATFC or his S3 with technical advice from the AMC or his liaison officer. They do so using the following criteria:

b. Options to consider. If there are options available in selecting LZS, the ones that best facilitate mission accomplishment are chosen. This choice involves whether to land on or near the objective, or to land away from it and maneuver forces on the ground to the objective. Factors considered in making that determination are:

c. Landing zone characteristics. In addition to deciding where to land in relation to the objective, a decision is made on whether to use a single LZ or multiple LZs.

a. Frequently, it is desirable to make the initial assault without preparatory fires in order to achieve tactical surprise. However, preparations are planned for each LZ so that they can be fired if needed.

b. Planned fires for air assault operations should be intense and short but with a high volume of fire to maximize surprise and shock effect. The fires should end just before the first assault element's landing.

c. When developing fire support plans, consideration is given to:

a. The air movement plan is based on the ground tactical and landing plans. It specifies the schedule and provides instructions for air movement of troops, equipment, and supplies from PZs to LZs. It also provides coordinating instructions regarding air routes, air control points, and aircraft speeds, altitudes, and formations. The planned use of attack helicopters, to include security and linkup locations (if different from PZ), should also be included in the air movement plan. (When operations involve multiple lifts from the same PZ, a lift table is prepared to ensure lifts are properly organized.)

b. The air movement plan is normally developed in coordination with the AMC, or the aviation liaison officer, who provides technical assistance and recommendations.

a. Locate three to five kilometers from PZs and LZs respectively. This allows two to three minutes flying time for coordination of the flight's en route procedures.

b. Locate according to weather, obstacles, and enemy positions.

c. Locate to facilitate lift-off and landing into the wind by the best flight path.

a. The air movement table:

b. The table is prepared jointly by the AATF staff and aviation personnel and it is completed in detail since it serves as the primary movement document.

c. The table ensures that all personnel, equipment, and supplies are accounted for in the movement, that each aircraft is fully loaded, correctly positioned in the flight, and directed to the right LZ (Figure 3-3). The table must also include the refuel schedule for all lifts, if required.

a. Flight routes are developed based on tactical and technical factors. It may be necessary for a route to pass through an adjacent unit's sector. When that is the case, approval from that unit is obtained and coordination is made. Regardless of route direction or location, certain criteria are considered.

b. Seldom are all characteristics present in any one situation; one or more may have to be omitted. Flight routes:

a. When there is competition for airspace, it may be necessary to modify the flight route(s) and designate a flight corridors). The corridor reserves airspace around a flight route for AATF use, and prevents artillery, tactical air (TACAIR), and other elements from firing or flying through when it is in use.

b. Authority to establish a flight corridor is obtained from the brigade and/or division commanders). Designated flight corridors are coordinated through airspace management channels. This ensures that airspace within corridors is not violated.

c. The corridor begins as a flight route and is then modified as required. The size of corridors varies. Normally, they extend 200 to 300 meters on either side of the designated flight route, and 500 feet above and below the route flight altitude.

d. Helicopter formations operating at terrain flight (low) altitudes do not require minimum altitude corridor designations. The upper air limit of the corridor may vary and would be specified by the headquarters establishing it.

e. If it is necessary to restrict the operational area to only those aircraft directly involved in the air assault operation, a restricted area can be established by the airspace management element.

a. The flight axis is another variation of the flight route. It is a flight route that has width (like the corridor) but does not have airspace reserved to a specific altitude (as does the corridor).

b. The flight axis permits deviation laterally along the flight route but does not restrict the employment of other assets. It gives the AMC a choice in selecting en route formations and freedom to alter direction without coordinating a new flight route.

a. Control measures assist in navigation and provide control to ensure the AATF arrives in the LZ on time and in sequence.

b. Air control points (ACP) designate each point where the flight route changes direction (Figure 3-5). They include readily identifiable topographic features or points marked by electronic navigational aids. A route may have as many ACPs as necessary to control the air movement. The SPs and RPs are also air control points.

c. An ACP may be further designated as a communication checkpoint (CCP). A CCP is a point along the flight route that serial commanders report to the AMC. Radio transmissions are made only when necessary. If a report is required, the transmission is short. This is possible by using codes. For example, the short radio transmission, "One, One King," could mean that the first serial of lift I is crossing CCP King.

a. Once tentative flight routes are identified, they are designated for use by each unit. When large groups of aircraft are employed, dispersion is achieved by using multiple routes. However, with large serials it is often necessary to use fewer routes, or even a single route, in order to concentrate available supporting fires. Also, the number of alternate and return routes may be limited.

b. Primary, alternate, and return routes to be used by each subordinate unit are designated. When selecting routes, the following factors are considered:

a. Nap-of-the-earth flight. This is flown at varying airspeeds and altitudes as close to the earth's surface as possible while following the contours of the earth. It is a weaving flight path that remains oriented along the general axis of movement and takes advantage of terrain masking.

b. Contour flight. This is flown at low altitude conforming generally to the contours of the terrain. The flight is characterized by varying altitudes and varying airspeed.

c. Low level flight. This is flown at low altitude, with constant heading, airspeed, and altitude to facilitate speed and ease of movement while minimizing detection. This mode of flight is normally used only in rear areas.

d. Factors affecting flight attitude. These include:

a. Fires along the flight route are planned to suppress known or suspected enemy positions. These fires should be intense and of short duration. Multiple target engagement techniques should be utilized (groups, series).

b. Fire plans cover the PZs, flight routes, and LZs. Fire support plans include suppression of enemy air defense systems and smoke to protect formations from enemy detection. This requires aggressive fire planning by the fire support officer and direct coordination with FA and mortar fire direction centers and other fire support elements.

c. All available fire support is used to suppress and/or destroy enemy weapons including TACAIR, artillery, and attack helicopters.

d. Support may consist of smoke, chaff (air-dropped, shredded aluminum foil to foul radar), or other countermeasures for suppressing or confusing enemy air defense systems.

e. On-call fires are planned along the flight route to ensure rapid adjustment on targets of opportunity.

f. During night operations, the use of illumination fire requires detailed planning. Illumination can interfere with night vision goggles and cause unsafe conditions.

a. A successful air assault operation is a sequence of actions carefully planned and precisely executed.

b. The basis for timing is the time when the first aircraft in the first lift of the operation is to touch down on the LZ. It is referred to as H-hour. All times in air assault operations are referenced from H-hour (landing time column, air movement table). The H-hour in air assault operations is equivalent to the attack time in a mission order. If delays are encountered due to weather or aircraft delays, the commander announces a new H-hour (Figure 3-9).

c. Normal distance from RP to LZ is three to five kilometers. Planning time for navigating this distance is approximately two minutes, depending upon air speed (Figure 3-10). In order for the first aircraft to land in the LZ at H-hour, it must reach the RP at H-2 minutes (RP time column, air movement table).

d. The air movement table requires time for detailed planning. For large operations, an LO from the supporting aviation element is required.

e. The importance of an air movement table should not be underemphasized. As stated previously, C2 procedures should be planned to allow continued execution despite loss of radio communications. If the AMC and lift flight leaders have air movement tables in their possession, they can continue the mission without radio communications.

a. Lift-off time must be determined first in order to meet the LZ time. The total flight route time is determined by adding the time to fly from the SP to the RP to the LZ. In the preceding example, flight route time was determined to be eight minutes. The flight time from the RP to the LZ is two minutes. In this case, SP time would be H-10 arrived at as follows:

b. To determine the lift-off time, add the time between PZ and SP. Continuing the example, if time between PZ and SP is two minutes, the -

c. All times (lift-off, SP, and landing) are recorded in the proper columns of theair movement table (Figure 3-12).

a. Loading time is the time required, before lift-off, to load the aircraft. Time to load is normally dependent on prior training, equipment to be carried, and light conditions. Night operations require more loading time. Once loading time is determined, it is added to the previously computed times (Figure 3-13).

b. If a unit requires four minutes to load, in order to meet the lift-off time of H-12, it begins loading no later than H-16 minutes (loading time and lift-off time columns, air movement table).

c. Slingloading also requires additional time that must be calculated into this plan. The use of slingloads may also reduce the en route airspeed.

d. The aviation and ground elements each begin movement to the PZ to start loading at the prescribed time.

e. With the air movement time schedule completed for the initial elements, the air movement table is completed by building on the initial times.

a. An accurate table must also contain the times involved in aircraft refueling.

b. Refueling is planned so that a flight completes refueling before the serial that is scheduled to be refueled last gets critically low on fuel. If only a portion of the flight can be refueled at the FARP, the first serial might have to refuel as much as an hour before it needs refueling. The other serials continue the lift operation until it is their turn to refuel. The plan should allow a smooth, continuous rotation of aircraft into and out of the FARP (Figure 3-16).

e. The number of aircraft that can refuel at one time is divided into the number of aircraft in the lift. The result is the number of separate trips to the FARP to refuel the entire lift one time.

d. The result is multiplied by the time required for the aircraft to refuel. The answer gives the total time required to refuel one time. For example, if four serials require 15 minutes each to refuel, it takes one hour to refuel the entire lift. (This time includes time for repositioning to the PZ.)

e. This figure is subtracted from the available flying time to determine at what point in the mission the refueling process must begin.

f. The physical planning for refueling begins when the aircraft arrive in the PZ for loading. Once the plans are developed, refueling becomes a part of the table (Figure 3-17).

a. Loading plans are carefully coordinated with the AMC or the aviation LO. Copies of the loading plan should be distributed to the aviation LO, command and control elements, AMC, and the PZ control officer.

b. For battalion or larger air assault operations, a written plan may be required to:

c. The requirement for detailed, written plans can be reduced by having adequate unit SOPs covering PZ operations and loading plans. Regardless of SOP adequacy, the loading phase should receive command attention to ensure that it goes smoothly. A well-planned and properly executed loading operation is imperative to mission success.

a. Pickup zone identification is the first step in the loading plan development.

b. Extraction under pressure is also a function of successful PZ selection. Selected PZs must facilitate delivery of suppressive fires and continuous security of elements to be extracted and the helicopters.

c. Figure 3-18 shows the technical factors that must be considered in selecting Pzs.

d. Once available PZs are identified, the AATFC and his S3 select and assign PZs to be used by each unit. Pickup zone criteria include:

a. The pickup zone control officer organizes, controls, and coordinates operationsin PZs selected by the AATFC. (The S4 selects and controls logistical PZs.)

b. The PZCO accomplishes the following:

a. The PZCO directs the marking of PZs. An effective method is to name the PZ by color and mark it accordingly (by that color) to direct where aircraft will land.

b. Red is never used to mark an aircraft landing position. It is used to mark landing obstacles such as trees or stumps in the landing area.

c. Regardless of the type of markers, the PZ is marked to indicate where aircraft are to land and coincides with the selected PZ aircraft formation.

d. An effective method is to have several individuals in each unit paint (and carry) an extra camouflage cover or a modified (cut to size) VS-17 panel. The colored covers, when displayed, indicate where the lead aircraft lands.

a. Ground and aviation unit movement to the PZ is scheduled so that only the troops to load, and the helicopter to be loaded, arrive at the PZ at the same time. This prevents congestion, preserves security, and reduces vulnerability to enemy actions on the PZ (Figure 3-20).

b. To coordinate the movement of units to the PZ, the PZCO:

a. At company and lower levels, the airloading table assigns each man and major items of equipment or supplies to a specific aircraft (chalk).

b. The airloading table is an accountability tool, a loading manifest for each aircraft.

c. When time is limited, the table can be put on a sheet of paper from a squad leader's notebook. It should list soldiers (by name) and equipment to be loaded on each chalk. These lists are left with a specified representative in the area for consolidation or exchange between aircraft troop commanders (senior person in each aircraft load). This procedure ensures that if an aircraft is lost, a list of personnel and equipment on board is available.

a. During preparation of the loading tables, unit leaders at all levels attempt to maintain the following:

b. Another consideration is to determine whether internal or external loading is the best delivery method for equipment and supplies. Helicopters loaded internally can fly faster and are more maneuverable. Externally (sling) loaded helicopters fly slower and are less maneuverable; however, they can be loaded and unloaded more rapidly than internally loaded helicopters. The method used depends largely on availability of sling and rigging equipment.

a. Each aircraft load has a bump sequence designated on its airloading table. Bump priority ensures that the most essential personnel and equipment arrive at the objective area first. It specifies personnel and equipment that may be bumped and delivered later.

b. If all personnel within the load cannot be lifted, individuals must know who is to offload and in what sequence. This ensures that key personnel are not bumped arbitrarily. Also, bump sequence is designated for aircraft within each serial or flight. This sequence is listed on the air movement table.

c. This also ensures that key aircraft loads are not left in the PZ. When an aircraft within a serial or flight cannot lift off, and key personnel are on board, they offload and reboard another aircraft that has priority.

a. Lifts. A lift is one sortie of all utility and cargo aircraft assigned to a mission. That is, each time all assigned aircraft pick up troops and/or equipment and set them down on the LZ, one lift is completed. The second lift is completed when all lift aircraft place their second load on the LZ.

b. Serials.

c. Loads.

a. Enemy forces (especially troop concentrations and locations and types of ADA assets).

b. Friendly forces.

c. Weather (ceiling, visibility, wind, temperature, pressure and density altitude, sunrise and sunset, moonrise and moonset, percent of moon illumination, end evening nautical twilight, beginning morning nautical twilight, PZ and LZ altitudes, and weather outlook).

a. Ground tactical plan.

b. Fire support plan to include suppression of enemy air defenses.

c. Air defense artillery plans.

d. Engineer support plan.

e. Tactical air support.

f. Aviation unit tasks.

g. Staging plan (both primary and alternate PZs).

h. Air movement plan.

i. Landing plan (both primary and alternate LZs).

j. Laager plan (both primary and alternate laager sites).

k. Extraction plan (both primary and alternate PZs).

l. Return air movement plan.

m. Coordinating instructions.

a. FARP locations (primary and alternate).

b. Ammunition and fuel requirements.

c. Backup aircraft.

d. Aircraft special equipment requirements, such as cargo hooks and command consoles with headsets.

e. Health service support.

a. Signal.

b. Command.