FM 7-91 Chptr 3 Employment/ Antiarmor Platoon

CHAPTER 3
EMPLOYMENT OF THE ANTIARMOR PLATOON

When fighting a numerically superior enemy force, fast and efficient target engagement is critical to winning. Speed of target engagement depends on each TOW squad's proficiency in target acquisition, in target identification, and in determining whether the target is engageable by the TOW. Because of dust and smoke, locating and identifying the enemy will be a problem. As the battle progresses, and friendly and enemy units become mixed, acquiring and identifying targets will be crucial. TOW crews should be trained to acquire targets that are using terrain, vegetation, and smoke for concealment. They should also be trained to identify targets as friend or foe.

Section I. TARGET ACQUISITION

Knowing where to look is the first step in acquiring targets. Once crew members know where to look, they must know how to look to rapidly detect targets.

3-1. WHERE TO LOOK

The primary targets for antiarmor platoons are armored vehicles. Therefore, units should look for terrain where armored targets are most likely to appear. Knowing Threat armor tactics and the characteristics of Threat vehicles will help squad members to recognize terrain where they will most likely be employed.

b. Terrain is continually changing because of clearing areas for farming and constructing new roads and buildings. Trafficability of terrain is affected by weather. Therefore, a ground reconnaissance is needed to obtain current and more detailed information of roads, trails, man-made objects, density of trees and brush, and the seasonal conditions of streams and rivers. If a ground reconnaissance is not possible, use an aerial reconnaissance or recent aerial photographs.

c. Knowing the mobility characteristics of Threat armored vehicles also assists antiarmor platoons in determining where to look. If the situation permits, tank and motorized rifle units avoid terrain or obstacles that can stop or impede movement, such as--

(2) A sturdy wall or an embankment 3 feet high or higher.

(3) A ditch or a gully 9 or more feet wide and 3 or more feet deep.

(4) Hardwood trees 10 inches or larger in diameter and 10 feet or less apart.

(5) A water obstacle at least 5 feet deep. (Warsaw Pact tanks are equipped with snorkels, but the snorkel is time-consuming to install.)

(6) Swampy or rough, rocky terrain.

(7) Built-up areas where armored vehicles are restricted to moving on confined roads, through park areas, or across sports fields.

d. Armored vehicles can breach some obstacles or move through restrictive terrain, but their movement is slowed considerably. For this reason, a commander may keep those areas under observation and move TOWs only to react to Threat initiatives coming from those areas.

3-2. HOW TO LOOK

Observation of likely armor approaches must be continuous, even when the unit is moving.

b. Scanning Techniques. (See Figure 3-1.) Proper scanning techniques enable the TOW squads to locate and to identify targets quickly. Using the naked eye, an observer should first make a quick overall search for obvious targets or telltale signatures, such as exhaust smoke or dust. He should also listen for telltale sounds such as engine noises. (If possible, turn off vehicle engines so that sounds of enemy vehicles can be heard.)

Figure 3-1. Scanning techniques.

(2) If a target is detected, it should be kept under observation until it is engaged. Otherwise, that target may be difficult to find again. If the observer must look elsewhere, he should note the target's direction of travel in relation to a prominent terrain feature. The terrain feature is then used as a reference point in finding the target again.

(3) During darkness, an observer should look a few degrees off to the side of an object rather than directly at it. Because at night, the sides of the eyes are more sensitive to dim light. The eyes should be moved in short, abrupt, irregular movements. The observer should pause a few seconds at each likely target area and look for movement, a light source, or any other target signature.

c. Optics. Using the TOW sights (both optical and night), squad leader's periscope, binoculars, and night observation devices, targets can be acquired at ranges greater than with the naked eye. Thermal night vision sights and devices can also be used for both day and night to acquire targets through smoke, light vegetation, camouflage, and fog.

(2) The TOW 2 nightsight can be used 24 hours a day. The thermal sight differentiates heat sources to detect targets even during the daylight. However, observers must be rotated often when scanning the sector because of operator fatigue. A technique is to scan the sector once with the optical sight, and then with the nightsight. When dismounted, scanning with the nightsight is limited by the amount of operational time available from the nightsight's batteries. Observation time with the nightsight can be increased by alternating observation periods between squads covering the same sector.

(3) Efficiency of binoculars in daylight can be increased by using only one eyepiece or by cupping the eyepiece to prevent additional light from entering the eye. Keeping the binoculars steady by resting them against a steady object also increases efficiency.

(4) At times, an observer with binoculars and a means to communicate with the squad can operate dismounted to better cover a sector. This may be necessary when the vehicle is in a hide position.

3-3. OTHER SOURCES OF TARGET INFORMATION

b. Antiarmor platoons may receive additional target information from ground surveillance radar (GSR) and Remotely Monitored Battlefield Sensor Systems (REMBASSs). These systems are excellent for use during limited visibility. They are frequently attached to battalions for early warning. Examples of target information that can be provided are location, direction of movement, classification of target (personnel, tracked or wheeled vehicle), and rate of speed. Coordination with these units must be conducted. As a minimum, coordination should include--

(2) Radio frequencies and call signs.

(3) Locations of primary and alternate positions.

(4) Fire control measures (to assist in transfer of target information).

c. Like TOW, the GSR is a line-of-sight system. It can locate targets at long range (10,000 meters) in all conditions of visibility. The REMBASS has sensors that are frequently emplaced near avenues of approach to detect movement of troops or vehicles.

Section II. TARGET RECOGNITION AND IDENTIFICATION

Potential targets must be identified by their activity, location, or signature (visual or otherwise) before they are engaged. Therefore, squad members must be able to recognize combat vehicles by type; for example, tank, armored personnel carrier, air defense vehicle, and identify them. Identification of friendly vehicles becomes even more difficult when foreign units are operating with or adjacent to US forces. This ability to identify targets is essential when a commander establishes target priorities that require the antiarmor platoon to engage specific types of vehicles. There are several different techniques that can be used in target identification.

3-4. TARGET SIGNATURES

b. Target signatures are detected primarily by sight, hearing, and sometimes smell. If anything suspicious or unusual is detected, it should be checked out thoroughly. Personnel should be alert for strangely shaped objects. A straightedge or even a curve may indicate an enemy vehicle or soldier. The sun reflecting off a flat surface, such as a windshield, is a dead giveaway. Knowing where a particular type of target is most likely to appear assists in identification once a signature is detected.

Foxholes.
Trash.
Cut or missing vegetation (cleared for fields of fire or camouflage).
Freshly dug earth (may indicate foxholes or other fighting positions).
Voices.
Light from a match, cigarette, or fire.

(2) Tracked vehicle signatures.

Large dust clouds.
Diesel smoke.
Noise made by tracks and engine.
Vehicle tracks on the ground.
Distinctive silhouette or shape.

(3) Antitank signatures.

Smoke and flash of missile launch.
"Swish" of missile launch.
Long, thin wires in brush, trees, or along the ground.
Tracers of slow-flying ATGMs.
Dismounted soldier looking through a periscope-type device (launcher could be up to 80 meters from gunner).

(4) Obstacles and mines.

Loose or disturbed dirt in a regular pattern.
Areas where large trees have been removed.

3-5. TARGET IDENTIFICATION

Not only must the TOW gunner spot targets, he must identify them as either friendly or enemy. One method of making this determination is by knowing where friendly forces are located, and where enemy vehicles should be expected. All vehicles not identified should be tracked until identification can be made. Leaders must keep TOW gunners informed of the tactical situation and the location of friendly units.
Learning to recognize targets by type is not a difficult task, but identifying them as friendly or enemy requires study and attention to detail. This is particularly true of tanks, because both friendly and Threat tanks are similar in design. Side-by-side they may look different, but when camouflaged at a distance of 2,000 to 3,000 meters, it is difficult to see a difference. Antiarmor squads must know friendly and Threat armored vehicles they can expect to see on the battlefield. Training aids, such as GTA 17-2-13, 35-mm color slides, scale models, or pictures from magazines and newspapers, can be used to study the armored vehicles of various nations.
There are identifiable differences between armored vehicles. Because observers often will not be able to see an entire armored vehicle, they should know the different structural characteristics of the vehicles. There are four structural areas on all tanks that can be used to identify them. They are suspension system, turret, main gun, and commander's station.
The type, location, and absence or presence of certain equipment within the four areas will identify any tank in the world. If any two of the areas can be identified, an identification can usually be made. A tank can be identified even if it is in a hull-down position, because three of the four areas--turret, main gun, and commander's station--can normally be seen.
Suspension system. This is the least reliable area for identification, because it is often concealed by vegetation or by terrain. The main features of the suspension system that distinguish different tanks are--
- Road wheels and support rollers.
- Road wheels only.
- Number of road wheels.
- Spacing between road wheels.
- Armored skirt.
Turret. Characteristics of the turret that can be used to distinguish tanks are--
- Position on the hull--well forward, in the center, or to the rear.
- Presence, absence, or location of searchlight.
- Shape of turret--rounded, elongated, or boxy.
- Externally mounted storage racks and other equipment.
- Main gun. The tank main gun can be identified by--
- Commander's station on some tanks. This can be a hatch, while on others it is a cupola. A cupola is a small turret-like projection on the top of the turret. Additionally, the commander's station is on the left side of some tanks and on the right side of other tanks.

3-6. THERMAL SIGNATURES

The introduction of thermal sights has added an entirely new aspect to target identification. The identification of targets by thermal signature is difficult and requires a lot of training. (See FM 23-34 for further training information.)

Section III. ENGAGEMENT

Before a TOW missile is fired at a target, it must be determined if the target can be engaged. A target can be engaged when it is within range of the missile, when it is exposed so that it can be identified and tracked by the gunner, and when it will remain exposed for the time it takes the missile to fly to the target. Target engagement is also affected by water obstacles and firing limitations (power lines, smoke, fog, snow, and ground clearance). This section provides techniques that can be used by TOW squads to rapidly determine target engagement.

3-7. RANGE ESTIMATION

A maximum engagement line (Figure 3-2) is an imaginary line drawn across a sector of fire 3,750 meters from a firing position. To establish this line, the squad leader or gunner identifies terrain features at or near his maximum range. Any target crossing or appearing short of this line should be within range. Established soon after a firing position is occupied, the maximum engagement line greatly reduces target engagement times, especially for those targets appearing near maximum range.

Figure 3-2. Maximum engagement line.

Draw an arc on the map across the assigned sector of fire 3,750 meters from the firing position(s).

Examine the map to identify distinctive natural or man-made terrain features that the line touches.
Study the terrain in the sector of fire using binoculars or the TOW optical sight until all the selected terrain features are located. Those terrain features are connected by an imaginary line from the maximum engagement line.

(2) Range-finding devices. The TOW is not equipped with a range finder, but tanks and FIST are equipped with them. Additionally, GSR can be used to determine ranges out to 10,000 meters. Since those devices are seldom on the TOW position, the maximum engagement line will have to be adjusted right or left, forward or backward, to compensate for their separation from the TOW.

(3) Recognition method. Range determination by recognition is simple and accurate. It is based on target visibility using the naked eye, or sighting through 7-power to 8-power binoculars or the TOW optical sight. The targets listed in Figure 3-3 are recognizable out to the ranges indicated. For example, if a target can be recognized with the naked eye as an armored vehicle or a wheeled vehicle, it is within 2,000 meters. When using this method, terrain, visibility conditions, and target size must be taken into account. Some light and terrain conditions can make a target appear closer, whereas other conditions can make it seem farther away. Figure 3-4 lists some conditions that can have an influence on the apparent range of a target.

Figure 3-3. Range determination recognition method.

Figure 3-4. Conditions affecting range estimation.

(4) Binocular method. The reticle in the standard binoculars can be used to quickly determine if an armored vehicle is within TOW range.

3-8. TARGET EXPOSURE TIME ESTIMATION

(2) The reticle in binoculars can be used like the TOW optical sight to estimate if there is enough time to engage a moving target.

b. Even though the techniques above are not exact, they can reduce the number of missiles fired at targets that move behind a covered area before the missile can reach them.

3-9. ENGAGEMENT LIMITATIONS

There are several conditions that limit whether or not the TOW may be fired. These include: firing over water, firing over electrical power lines, firing through fires, firing from buildings, and ensuring adequate ground clearance. (See FM 23-34 for information on these limitations to engaging targets with the TOW.)

Section IV. FIRE CONTROL AND DISTRIBUTION

The success of antiarmor platoons in combat depends on how quickly and effectively they engage targets. All TOW fires must be controlled to ensure full coverage of the target area and to minimize multiple engagement of a single target. This section discusses some standard measures and techniques that allow platoon and section leaders to effectively control and distribute fires in combat.

3-10. FIRE CONTROL METHODS

Fire control and distribution measures must be simple and understood. Their use must become routine, without the need for detailed instructions. The following paragraphs discuss the most commonly used measures for controlling the fires of an antiarmor platoon.

Figure 3-5

Figure 3-5. Sectors of fire.

Figure 3-6

(2) In most situations, the terrain and the number and type of weapons available to cover an area dictates how sectors of fire or engagement areas are assigned. They should be assigned so that an area is completely covered with the appropriate type of fire. Mutual support is maintained between squads, and between sections. Mutual support can be improved by assigning primary and secondary sectors of fire (Figure 3-7). One section's secondary sector of fire should correspond to another section's primary sector of fire to improve mutual support. Fire is shifted to the secondary sector, on order, when there are no targets in the primary sector. It is also shifted to cover another TOW section if that section is forced to move to an alternate position.

Figure 3-6. Engagement area.

Figure 3-7. Primary and secondary sectors of fire.

(3) If a mounted avenue of approach is narrow, or if the fire of an entire platoon is needed in a critical area, such as a choke point, overlapping sectors of Eire can be assigned. Because this increases the problem of control and the probability of target overkill, additional control measures, such as engagement priorities, fire patterns, and TRPs, are needed. When overlapping sectors of fire are assigned, leaders must select positions that allow them to observe and to coordinate fires.

b. Target Reference Points.

(2) In the defense, TRPs are designated along mounted avenues of approach. In an attack, they are designated on likely enemy locations and on prominent terrain features. To avoid confusion, TRPs should be limited to the minimum number required to distribute and control fire.

(3) When using a TRP to designate targets (Figure 3-8), compass directions are used (north, southeast, and so forth), rather than right or left, because each squad may be facing the TRP from a different direction.

Figure 3-8. Use of target reference points.

(4) TRPs may be used to control both direct and indirect fires. They are normally numbered sequentially using three-digit numbers. When a TRP is recommended and accepted to be used as an indirect-fire target, it is assigned a number from an assigned block of target identification numbers as explained in FM 6-20. A target identification number consists of two letters and four numbers--for example, AB 5010. When applicable, the identification numbers are recorded on range cards and sector sketches for easy reference and coordination. To simplify fire commands for direct-fire engagement, targets may be referred to by the last three digits. (For example, TGT AB 5010 may be referred to as TRP 010.)

c. Phase Lines.

Figure 3-9

(2) In either offensive or defensive operations, phase lines can be used to start or stop firing, to shift fire to another sector, or to indicate when squads, sections, or platoons are to move to alternate or supplementary positions.

Figure 3-9. Use of phase lines to control fires.

Figure 3-9

(4) Phase lines also can be used to specify when target priorities are to change. For example, the platoon leader might say, "I want both sections to engage only tanks until the enemy reaches PL Silver. When the enemy reaches PL Silver, I want Section 1 to begin engaging BMPs and any command vehicles you can identify."

(5) In addition to being a simple and effective control measure, a phase line can be assigned as an emergency control measure if radio communication is interrupted. In this way, a section leader knows that if the enemy reaches a designated phase line, he carries out his orders without further communication.

d. Engagement Priorities.

(2) This method is particularly effective during offensive or retrograde operations when surprise targets may appear and there is little time for detailed instructions. If a particular target is a threat to a unit, that target must be engaged immediately, regardless of engagement priorities. Code words may be used to change engagement priorities. For example, a code word could be used to shift priority from tanks to air defense vehicles when they are a threat to friendly air operations.

(3) Engagement priorities are useful when sectors of fire have not been assigned or when overlapping sectors of fire have been designated. Like phase lines, engagement priorities are useful if communications are lost.

e. Emergency Signals. Effective fire control is largely dependent upon good communication. Radio is the primary means commanders and leaders have to control their TOW assets. However, radio communication can be lost, especially in a nuclear environment or if the enemy is using electronic warfare. In such cases, emergency signals are used to control fires of squads and sections. Orders must be issued so that personnel know what to do to continue the battle if communications are lost. They must know the alternate signals that will be used. Use of pyrotechnics will often be the only rapid method available to control fires. Their use must follow the communications-electronics operation instructions (CEOI) and be practiced often. Examples of simple signals that the CEOI may specify are--

Signal Meaning

Red star cluster Stop firing Green star cluster Start firing White star cluster Switch to secondary sector Red and white Switch to alternate sector combination

f. Established Fire Commands. Because speed and accuracy are vital when engaging targets, fire commands must be clear and concise. In the stress of battle, a platoon leader or section leader must be able to quickly analyze a situation, and follow up with concise, understandable, and complete fire commands.

ELEMENT EXAMPLE

ALERT TANGO FOUR ONE - THIS IS TANGO FOUR ZERO DESCRIPTION FOUR TANKS AND THREE BMPs LOCATION EAST OF TRP ZERO ZERO FOUR CONTROL (OPTION) DEPTH EXECUTION FIRE or AT MY COMMAND CLOSING CEASE TRACKING

(b) To shorten the fire command, the control element is omitted when not needed. Also, the description may be omitted when target priorities have been assigned, for example, when the target is automatically tanks unless otherwise specified. That simplifies the command when tanks and BMPs appear at the same time and the platoon or section has been directed to engage only tanks.

(2) Elements.

SAMPLE CEOI EXTRACT

CALL SIGN

PLATOON C5T PLATOON LEADER C5T40 1ST SQUAD (1st section leader) C5T41 2D SQUAD C5T42 3D SQUAD (2d section leader) C5T43 4TH SQUAD C5T44 PLATOON SERGEANT C5T45

(b) Normally, the platoon leader gives the fire command to the section leaders. Because each squad is in the platoon radio net, the section leaders need not repeat the entire fire command to the other squad in each section unless necessary. If more instructions are needed, only those elements of the fire command that need to be changed are given. Once the platoon leader completes a fire command, each section leader acknowledges in turn. The second squad in each section should then acknowledge in turn so that each section leader knows the squads have received the command and understand it.

(3) Examples.

           TANGO (entire platoon) - THIS IS TANGO FOUR ZEXO
           TEN TANKS
           DIRECT FRONT
           CROSS
           FIRE

(b) Example 2. Platoon leader's fire command to engage assaulting BMPs and tanks. The platoon leader alerts the entire platoon, indicating that he wants both sections to fire. He then specifies that Section 1 will engage the BMPs; TANGO FOUR ONE - BMPs; and that Section 2 will engage the tanks; TANGO FOUR THREE - TANKS. Because the platoon leader leaves out the control element, each section leader will add it by telling the other squad, DEPTH, CROSS, if necessary for control within the section. FRONTAL FIRE is understood unless the section leader specifies otherwise.

         TANGO - THIS IS TANGO FOUR ZERO
         BMPs AND TANKS
         WEST OF TRP ZERO ZERO SEVEN
         TANGO FOUR ONE - BMPs
         TANGO FOUR THREE - TANKS
         FIRE

(c) Example 3. The platoon leader's command to continue the engagement after the BMPs are destroyed. The platoon leader instructs Section 1 to shift fire to the tanks and continue to engage. Because the control element is omitted, FRONTAL FIRE is understood. Although the command does not mention Section 2, that section will continue to fire based on its last instructions.

         TANGO FOUR ONE - THIS IS TANGO FOUR ZERO
         TANKS

(d) Example 4. Platoon leader's command to stop the engagement.

         TANGO - THIS IS TANGO FOUR ZERO
         CEASE FIRE

3-11. FIRE PATTERNS

Fire patterns are standard techniques for the distribution of tank and antiarmor fires on multiple targets. They are most often used when terrain-oriented fire-control measures (TRPs, engagement areas) have been identified. When they are used, fire patterns are announced as part of the section fire command. The three basic fire patterns are frontal, cross, and depth.

Figure 3-10

Figure 3-10. Frontal fire.

(2) Frontal fire is most effective against an enemy dispersed laterally, moving laterally across a sector of fire. It is least effective when target vehicles are moving toward the firing positions. This is because target vehicles' observation and firepower are oriented toward the platoon, and the squads are firing into the thickest (front) armor on the target vehicles.

b. Cross Fire. Cross fire (Figure 3-11) is used when targets are dispersed laterally and moving toward the firing positions. It is used for flank shots and to avoid detection when the target is moving toward firing positions. Each squad engages a target on the opposite flanks. As targets are destroyed, fire is shifted toward the center of the formation.

Figure 3-11. Cross fire.

Figure 3-12

Figure 3-12. Depth fire.

d. Adjustments to Fire Patterns. Fire patterns are changed as needed when the enemy adjusts his formation or direction of movement after being engaged. Enemy vehicles will not be in easily recognizable formations. The formations will more likely appear as a mass of vehicles because of uneven terrain and the viewing aspect. The fire pattern selected should be based on how the formation appears in relation to the firing position and the section leader's or platoon leader's estimate of how to best engage the enemy.

3-12. FIRE PLANNING

Fire planning is an integral part of the troop-leading procedure. It starts as soon as a leader receives a mission and continues until the mission is accomplished. The primary goal of fire planning is to prescribe how fire is to be distributed and controlled to best support an operation. The fire plan establishes the measures a platoon leader needs to follow to adequately distribute and control the fires of his platoon. Fire planning also includes indirect fire; this paragraph discusses only direct-fire weapons.

b. Sector Sketch.

Figure 3-13

The main terrain features in the sector of fire and the ranges to them.

The primary and secondary sectors of fire of his squads.

Maximum engagement lines.

Engagement areas.

Target reference points.
Dead space.

Phase lines to start firing, or to indicate when the squad is to disengage.

Obstacles and indirect-fire targets.

Figure 3-13. Section sector sketch.

(3) The platoon leader checks weapon positions to ensure that the TOW systems are sited correctly. He then uses the section sector sketches to make a platoon sketch (Figure 3-14.) He makes two sketches; he keeps one and gives one to his company commander or to the commander of the company he is supporting.

Figure 3-14. Platoon sector sketch.

Figure 3-15

Figure 3-15. Platoon engagement matrix.

(2) Designates targets and additional control measures, such as TRPs, phase lines, or target priorities, to coordinate the fire when more than one section is firing into the same engagement area or sector.

(3) Integrates target information from subordinate leaders (normally provided on section sector sketches and/or individual squad range cards). He then reviews this target information to ensure that fire is properly distributed across his sector and that sufficient control measures have been established.

(4) Coordinates and integrates his TOW fires with those of tanks and other antiarmor weapons.

(5) Completes the fire plan and gives a copy of the sector sketch to the control headquarters or to the supported unit commander; for example, the antiarmor company commander or task force commander.

d. Offensive Fire Planning. Offensive fire planning relies more on fire patterns and SOPs to bring effective fire on the enemy than does defensive fire planning. This is especially true in situations, such as movement to contact, when knowledge of the enemy is vague, and when the terrain is unfamiliar. To compensate for the lack of familiarity with the terrain, a thorough map reconnaissance along with terrain information from the battalion S2 can be used. The platoon leader uses the information and the commander's scheme of maneuver to--

(2) Ensure that TOW fires are integrated with other overwatching fires. This can be done using TRPs, phase lines, priorities of engagement, and sectors of fire much the same as in defensive fire planning.

(3) Plan how targets will be designated by the assaulting infantry for engagement by TOWs. This can be done by colored smoke, by signal panels, or by other means.

(4) Identify areas where TOW overwatch is not possible and advise the commander so that other weapons may be given the task.

(5) Identify routes between positions along the axis of advance or in the zone of action that allow rapid movement, and also provide security for the moving antiarmor sections.

(6) Complete the plan with approval of the supported commander and brief subordinate leaders.

3-13. ANTIARMOR RANGE CARD

A range card is a sketch or diagram of the terrain that a weapon is assigned to cover by fire. It shows possible target areas and terrain features plotted in relation to a firing position. The information on a range card is used for planning and controlling fire, for rapidly detecting and engaging targets, and for orienting replacement personnel and units.

(2) The gunner prepares a range card as soon as possible after moving into a firing position. Two copies of the range card are prepared. One copy is kept with the squad and the other is given to the platoon leader. The platoon leader uses the range cards to prepare a platoon sector sketch. It is best to use standard, printed range card forms. If no forms are available, anything that the gunner can write on, such as a piece of notebook paper, may be used. (For procedures on how to prepare an antiarmor range card, see FM 23-34.)

b. Staking the Position.

Figure 3-16

Figure 3-16. Staking the position.

(3) To reoccupy a marked position, the driver aligns his vehicle on the front stake and moves forward slowly until the two stakes on the left of his vehicle are centered on the front and rear hubs. Units equipped with ITVs use the azimuth indicator on the ITV for positioning stakes and reoccupying positions. (For details on this procedure, see FM 23-34.)

Section V. FIRING POSITIONS

The use of firing positions by TOW squads applies in both the offense and the defense. Because of the fluid nature of offensive operations, TOW firing positions are most often unprepared defilade positions. They are occupied while en route to an objective. When moving, platoon and section leaders continuously search for covered and concealed firing positions and routes to them. Tentative firing positions and routes should be selected from a map reconnaissance whenever a visual reconnaissance of the terrain cannot be made. In the defense, firing positions are usually characterized by improved frontal and overhead protection because the defender has more time to gain a detailed knowledge of the terrain to increase his protection and concealment. A TOW firing position must provide protection for the weapon system and its crew and allow target engagement. When selecting firing positions, emphasis should be placed on being able to engage the enemy.

3-14. CONSIDERATIONS FOR TOW POSITIONS

In the offense, the TOW is employed on its weapon system carrier (M151, M966, M901, or M113). In defense, it may be employed on its carrier vehicle, or it may be tripod-mounted. In deciding whether to employ the TOW mounted or dismounted, a platoon leader must consider several factors. It may be impossible or impractical to move the carrier vehicle into the firing position and, at the same time, be able to conceal the vehicle or its tracks leading into the position. It may be best to dismount the TOW system and park the vehicle in a concealed location to the rear of the firing position. In any case, the leader must consider the loss of mobility when the TOW system is not mounted.

3-15. SELECTION

b. Each squad leader should select firing positions that afford maximum protection while allowing the gunner to engage the targets. Selection of firing positions begins when each section is assigned a mission, a sector of fire or engagement area, and a general location. The section leader designates a general firing position for each of his squads, and may designate the exact location for the squad he is with. If time is available, the section leader may designate the exact position for the other squad.

c. Ideally, each squad's position should provide--

Cover, especially to the front.

Concealment from ground and aerial observation.

Good observation and fields of fire into the assigned sector of fire or engagement areas.

Covered and concealed routes to and between positions.

Mutual support between squad positions and with other elements.

d. Positions should be selected below ridgelines and crests, preferably on the sides of hills. Positions and the routes to the positions should be as dry and level as possible. Avoid swampy areas and steep hillsides. Avoid positions on or near prominent terrain features.

e. At night or during other limited visibility, TOW squads should be positioned where they can detect and engage targets. Leaders should not assume that darkness will hide their firing positions. Night vision devices available to Threat forces allow them to see almost as well in darkness as in daylight. Noise can be heard farther away during the night. Thermal night vision devices can sense the heat given off by a hot or even a cooling engine. They also allow the viewer to see through smoke, fog, or even light foliage or camouflage.

f. Once a position is selected, a unit should strive to improve it for as long as it is occupied. If a unit is to stay in a position for a long time, extensive improvements can be made, especially with engineer assistance.

3-16. PRIMARY, ALTERNATE, AND SUPPLEMENTARY POSITIONS

Each squad should have a primary firing position and as many alternate positions as practical. Depending on terrain and mission, a supplementary position may also be assigned (Figure 3-17). Primary and alternate positions are used in the attack and the defense, while the supplementary position is used only in the defense.

Figure 3-17. Primary, alternate, and supplementary positions.

b. Alternate Position. An alternate position must allow a squad to cover the same area as was covered from the primary position.

(2) When the squad leader selects the alternate position(s), he should report each location to the section leader and the platoon leader. During the battle, he should also report when he moves to an alternate position. Besides moving to an alternate position when the primary position begins receiving fire, a squad may also move to it to confuse the enemy. Given adequate time in the defense, each alternate position should be prepared with as much care as the primary position.

c. Supplementary Position. This position is designated to cover an area or possible enemy avenue of approach that cannot be covered from the primary or alternate positions. A supplementary position is usually designated to cover areas or approaches to the flank or rear of a unit. As a minimum, a supplementary position should be reconnoitered and a range card prepared for it. At times, the OPORD will specify that the position is to be prepared. Normally, a supplementary position is only occupied on order.

3-17. OCCUPATION

As it occupies a firing position, a unit should be careful to avoid detection. Careless occupation can compromise a well-concealed position. Rapid movement into firing positions should be avoided, especially in dusty areas or areas where vegetation may be disturbed.

b. Once the leaders have completed their ground reconnaissance, they call the vehicles forward and guide them into position. Section and squad leaders may consider backing the vehicles into position. This will permit rapid displacement from the position without having to move toward the enemy or take the time to turn around. Telltale signs, such as vehicle tracks, that could be detected by aerial observation are eliminated.

c. Platoons and sections must develop an SOP for the occupation of a firing position that includes the sequence of action and the priority of work. This ensures that all squad members know what is expected of them and can work without lengthy instructions.

3-18. PREPARATION

Preparation of a firing position begins upon occupation and continues until the position is vacated. This includes the initial digging in, range card preparation, and camouflaging. After the position is occupied and security is established, the first step in preparation of the position is setting up and sighting the weapon system on its sector of responsibility, and preparing a range card. During the preparation of the position, the squad must always be prepared to fight. Keeping the sector of responsibility under constant observation allows the squad to react quickly if the enemy appears before preparation of the position is completed.

Figure 3-18

Figure 3-18. Camouflage the position.

c. The position should only be approached from the rear, leaving no visible trail. Any footprints around or leading into the position should be wiped out or covered.

d. The TOW launcher can easily be detected if it is above ground level, especially during daytime. To reduce the possibility of detection, the launcher should be kept below ground level until needed. To accomplish this, release the friction lock on the rear leg and slide the leg back into the notch at the rear of the position. Make sure that no dirt or debris gets into the launch tube.

3-19. TYPES OF POSITIONS

Figure 3-19

Figure 3-19. Natural hull-down position.

Figure 3-20

Figure 3-21

Figure 3-20. Excavated hull-down position.

Figure 3-21. Hide position to hull-down position.

Figure 3-22

Figure 3-22. Outline of dismounted position.

Figure 3-23

Figure 3-23. Position of missile guidance set.

Figure 3-24

Figure 3-24. Overhead cover.

(5) To keep the position dry, a layer of waterproof material, such as packing material or a poncho, should be laid over the logs before adding the dirt. If sandbags are used, they also should be covered with waterproof material because, when wet, they become heavy and may cause a cave-in.

c. Hunter-Killer Position. To conduct a hit-and-run antiarmor ambush, a small position may be created that is just large enough to conceal the system and crew until it executes the ambush. These positions use no overhead cover, and normally take advantage of existing terrain features, such as folds in the ground.

d. Urban Terrain Position. When antiarmor units are employed in urban terrain, the same considerations for position selection as previously mentioned apply. (See FM 5-103 and FM 90-10-1 for additional information.)

The building is sturdy.

The ceiling is at least 2 meters (7 feet) high.

The room is at least 5 by 8 meters (17 by 24 feet) or larger.

There are 2 square meters (20 square feet) of ventilation to the rear of the system (an open door 2 by 1 meter [7 by 3 feet] provides that much ventilation).

Glass is removed from all windows and doors, and furniture and other objects that could be blown around are removed from the room.

Everyone in the room wears earplugs and is positioned forward of the rear end of the launch tube.

(2) Urban terrain affords the TOW squad improved conditions to maximize cover and concealment, but firing limitations must be considered.

3-20. MOVEMENT BETWEEN FIRING POSITIONS

The Threat considers ATGMs (TOWs) to be critical targets. He will be expecting TOW fires and will react immediately to suppress it. Because of this, TOW squads must be prepared to move to their alternate positions. The decision for a squad to move to an alternate position is normally made by the section leader. Although in some instances, the platoon leader may reserve the authority to approve the squad leader's request to move. The platoon leader must coordinate the movement of his sections and squads so that all of the weapons are not moving at once. At least one squad must be in position to cover the assigned sector while the other squads move.

3-21. ROUTES BETWEEN POSITIONS

b. The routes into, out of, and between positions should offer cover and concealment and, in so far as possible, should avoid areas where the vehicles may raise dust. Routes should allow the squad to enter the firing position opposite the location of the enemy.

c. When moving between positions, the platoon leader normally moves with one section, and the platoon sergeant with the other. Dispersion between vehicles and normal security measures are enforced.

3-22. GROUND CLEARANCE

(2) There should be at least 30 inches of clearance between a gunner's line of sight to a target and any obstruction that is between 500 and 900 meters from the firing position (Figure 3-25).

Figure 3-25. Clearance requirements.

Figure 3-26

Figure 3-26. Probability of survival for the TOW.

Section VI. BATTLEFIELD MOVEMENT

The movement of units on the battlefield is an essential part of all combat operations. Tactical movements are conducted using techniques consistent with the requirement for speed, enemy situation, terrain, and visibility. Tactical discusses moving the TOW by helicopter. Tactical road marches, a form of tactical movement, are conducted in division and corps rear areas to rapidly relocate units when the probability of enemy contact is remote and security requirements are minimal. Planning and conduct of tactical road marches are covered in FM 7-20. This section discusses how antiarmor platoons move on the battlefield when enemy contact is likely and security is required. It includes a discussion of maneuver once enemy contact is made.

3-23. MOVEMENT FUNDAMENTALS

Whether moving when not in contact or after enemy contact is made, the platoon must minimize exposure to observation and fires. Skillful use of terrain, avoidance of possible kill zones, and use of measures to counter enemy observation and fires are basic to effective movement.

Use cover and concealment.
Avoid skylining.
Do not move directly forward from a defilade firing position.
Cross open areas quickly.

b. Avoid Possible Kill Zones. Avoid large, open areas, especially those dominated by high ground or by terrain that affords the cover and concealment. These are likely enemy kill zones. The enemy will attempt to incorporate those areas into his defensive scheme of action to capitalize on the long-range fields of fire of his ATGMs and other direct-fire weapons. If likely kill zones must be crossed, they must be crossed rapidly. Countermeasures are used to suppress likely and suspected enemy positions.

c. Use Countermeasures. Common countermeasures are suppressive fire, smoke, and camouflage.

(2) Smoke. Smoke to aid movement may be delivered by artillery, or by the maneuver battalion's organic mortars, smoke pots, smoke generators, or vehicle-mounted launchers. Smoke is used to obscure the enemy's vision or to screen the friendly force. Smoke to obscure is used on known enemy positions. It degrades the enemy's vision within and beyond his location. With thermal sights, the platoon may still engage identified point targets through this smoke. Smoke to screen is employed on the friendly force or between it and the enemy. It is also used to degrade enemy ground and aerial observation and point fires.

(3) Camouflage. Properly selected and applied, camouflage blends vehicles and troops naturally with the surrounding area. It complicates the enemy's target detection effort, especially from long ranges. Because of the wide use of night vision aids, camouflage is equally important at night. Camouflage will not, however, totally guard against detection by thermal imagery devices.

3-24. MOVEMENT WHEN NOT IN CONTACT

Figure 3-27

Figure 3-27. Selection of movement techniques.

Figure 3-28

Figure 3-28. Traveling.

(b) Companies using traveling overwatch normally move in a column. Platoons are staggered laterally with 50 to 100 meters between vehicles (mounted) or 20 to 50 meters between platoons (dismounted). Trail platoons may move on parallel routes to shorten the column and reaction time. These distances may be increased or decreased, depending on the terrain and visibility.

(c) Remaining antiarmor sections or platoons may be dispersed among the trailing elements of the battalion or they may move as a single element within the battalion column. By retaining the antiarmor company (minus) or platoon (minus) under his control, the battalion commander has an antiarmor force with which to respond to unforeseen events.

(2) Traveling overwatch. The traveling overwatch technique is used when enemy contact is possible, thus greater readiness is needed but speed is still important. To achieve this readiness, the distance between lead and following elements is increased. This distance is not fixed. The elements following stay far enough behind to avoid fire directed at the lead elements, yet close enough to provide support by maneuver if the lead element makes contact. In this movement technique, the lead elements continue to move and the trail element follows with occasional stops to overwatch movement of the lead element. Considerations for antiarmor platoons moving with companies and battalions using traveling overwatch are similar to those for traveling except that the probability of enemy contact is greater.

(b) If there are suitable fields of fire, an antiarmor platoon moving with an infantry company in traveling overwatch may move forward by bounds (Figure 3-29). In such cases, antiarmor sections bound forward alternately to provide overwatch, taking care not to move so far forward that they can be suppressed by enemy fires directed at the lead platoon. This technique for continuous overwatch is relatively easy to perform for antiarmor platoons that are moving with dismounted infantry over traversable terrain. At faster speeds, with mechanized infantry overwatching, antiarmor elements normally move continuously and occupy firing positions as the situation permits. If elements within the lead company are not bounding, antiarmor elements generally will not bound either.

Figure 3-29. Traveling overwatch.

(c) In situations where fields of fire are not suitable for TOW, antiarmor elements move with trailing platoons. Antiarmor elements moving with trail companies may move as in traveling. They may also be assigned to overwatch avenues of approach that lead into the flanks or rear of the moving battalion. The battalion commander may retain control of a portion of his antiarmor unit, so he can rapidly shift it to particular threats anticipated or encountered during the move.

(3) Bounding overwatch. This technique is used when enemy contact is expected. It is the most secure but the slowest of the movement techniques. Part of the moving force, the overwatch element, occupies a covered and concealed position that affords good observation and good fields of fire in the direction of the expected enemy. Another part, the bounding element, covered by the overwatch element, moves forward to a selected position. It secures the position and becomes the overwatch element so that the previous overwatch element becomes the bounding element. The bounding element is careful not to move beyond the range of the weapons in the overwatch element. It also takes care not to mask the fires of the overwatch element.

(b) The infantry company normally executes bounding overwatch by leading with a single platoon and overwatching with the remainder of the company if terrain and visibility permit. The overwatching platoon(s) with the antiarmor element are positioned to provide immediate supporting fire if the bounding element makes contact. The antiarmor platoon orients on suspected enemy locations and avenues of approach. They do not orient on the bounding element. Other direct-fire weapons orient on likely or suspected enemy locations at closer ranges. Indirect-fire weapons are prepared to deliver suppressive fires on planned targets or in response to requests for immediate suppression on unplanned targets. Figure 3-30 shows bounding overwatch within a moving infantry company.

(c) An important consideration when establishing the overwatch is that the TOW is not a suppressive or volume fire weapon. It does, however, provide long-range, accurate fire on point targets and complements a mix of other direct-fire and indirect-fire weapons in the overwatch role. Specific tasks for the overwatch element are--

Place fires on suspected enemy positions that could engage the bounding element out to and beyond the next overwatch position.

Maneuver in support of the bounding force.
Call for and adjust indirect fires.

Maintain direct communication with the bounding force.

Figure 3-30. Bounding overwatch.

Location of or direction to the enemy.
Size and type of enemy force (if known).
Position of the overwatch element.
Location of the next overwatch position.
Route to be used by the bounding element.
What the bounding element will do when it arrives at the next overwatch position.
Actions on contact.
How and where the next order will be given.

3-25. MANEUVER

b. Maneuver involves the actions of two elements: a base-of-fire and a moving element (Figure 3-31). The base-of-fire element covers the moving force by firing at the enemy. The moving force moves forward to close with the enemy or to reach a better position from which to fire. Depending on the distance to the enemy and the amount of cover and concealment available, the base-of-fire element and the moving force may switch roles, as needed, to continue maneuvering. Before the moving force advances beyond the supporting range of the base-of-fire element, it takes a position from which it can fire on the enemy, and allows the base-of-fire element to move. Maneuver can be conducted mounted or dismounted and at any organizational level.

Figure 3-31. Maneuver.

d. As part of the base of fire, antiarmor elements engage long-range point targets, such as enemy tanks, that are in prepared positions. Tanks and other infantry direct-fire weapons engage point and area targets at closer ranges. These weapons, along with supporting indirect fires, add volume to the base of fire.

Section VII. OFFENSIVE OPERATIONS

Antiarmor companies, platoons, and sections contribute to offensive operations by providing precise, long-range direct fires. This section discusses the techniques used by antiarmor platoons in the movement to contact, hasty attack, and deliberate attack. Techniques used in other offensive operations, such as exploitation and pursuit, are the same as those discussed here.

Offensive operations are conducted to carry the fight to the enemy and destroy, disrupt, or dislocate him. Such operations may be conducted to--

Secure key or decisive terrain.
Gain information.
Deceive and divert the enemy.
Deprive the enemy of resources.
Hold the enemy in position.

3-26. MOVEMENT TO CONTACT

b. The battalion conducts the movement to contact using either single or multiple columns (Figure 3-32). The commander organizes his force to ensure rapid and uninterrupted movement, and effective maneuver once enemy contact is made. The movement to contact is organized in virtually the same manner for both mechanized and light infantry forces. Antiarmor elements are usually with the lead company or in flank and rear security. They may also be dispersed throughout the column(s) of the moving force. Their placement and relationship to the maneuver companies depends on the commander's METT-T analysis as defined in his concept.

Figure 3-32. Movement to contact.

Figure 3-33

Figure 3-34

Figure 3-33. Flank screen.

Figure 3-34. Rear screen.

Provides early warning of enemy approach.

Destroys or repels small reconnaissance units.

Maintains enemy contact, once made, and reports enemy activity.

Impedes and harasses combat elements.

(c) The screening element establishes OPs along a screen line designated by the battalion commander. The screen line is shown as a line running parallel to the axis of advance for a flank screen and as a series of phase lines across the rear of the battalion for a rear screen. A screen line is established far enough from the battalion to prevent observation or direct fire. The screen is always established within range of organic or supporting indirect fires.

(d) Antiarmor sections are positioned with OPs covering the most threatening enemy armor avenues of approach. The OP's fields of observation and fire should capitalize on the TOW's capabilities. The addition of antiarmor elements increases the capability for good and limited visibility observation and long-range antitank fires.

(e) As with antiarmor elements in mechanized infantry, light infantry antiarmor platoons and sections enhance observation and antitank capabilities of screening light infantry.

(f) The mobility and responsiveness of light infantry screens can be vastly increased if Army aviation is used to move OPs. The use of helicopters for movement allows the occupation of OPs with infantry and antiarmor sections on terrain that would otherwise be difficult or impossible to reach by other means.

(2) Overwatch of the lead company.

(b) The lead company team normally moves using traveling overwatch or bounding overwatch. The technique used may change several times during movement based on the requirement for speed and the possibility of enemy contact. The company team leads with tanks unless restrictive terrain (forests, built-up areas) dictates that infantry lead. Like movement techniques, the type of platoon leading may change frequently. The antiarmor platoon provides long-range antiarmor overwatch for the leading platoon(s). It gears its movement to provide continuous coverage of leading tanks and infantry.

(c) When the lead company team is using traveling overwatch (Figure 3-35), the antiarmor platoon may move continuously, or it may bound by section to successive overwatch positions. The method used depends on the rate of movement of the lead platoons and the availability of suitable overwatch positions. The overwatch positions selected are oriented on the axis of advance of the lead platoons.

Figure 3-35. Lead company team traveling overwatch.

Figure 3-36

Figure 3-36. Lead company team bounding.

(f) In light infantry, the lead company moving to contact employs similar techniques. However, antiarmor elements overwatching the lead platoons of a light infantry force may remain farther to the rear than in mechanized infantry, because of slower rates of movement and less dispersion between lead elements. The battalion commander may choose to centrally control the long-range antiarmor overwatch and not task-organize antiarmor sections or an antiarmor platoon to the lead company.

3-27. ATTACK

There are two types of attack in the offense--hasty attack and deliberate attack.

(2) The antiarmor platoons are normally part of the base of fire. The base of fire contains a mix of weapons systems with typically one or more tank or infantry platoons, an antiarmor platoon or section(s), and supporting indirect fires. The base-of-fire weapons place direct and indirect fires on the enemy force while the moving elements maneuver. The base of fire destroys or suppresses weapons through the volume and accuracy of its fires.

(3) Because of their limited basic load and slow rate of fire, TOW systems do not provide volume fires. They do provide long-range, accurate fires on enemy vehicles, protected antitank guns and ATGMs, and other priority hard targets. TOW systems, when used as part of the base of fire, are located separately from tanks and, when possible, in depth to increase their survivability. Infantry and tank platoons may alternately move to close with the enemy or add their fires to the base of fire. Antiarmor platoons do not close with the enemy; they provide close support fires. They move only to improve their survivability and ability to support the attack. As the attacking platoons close with the enemy position, the antiarmor platoons shift their fires to engage withdrawing tanks or other armored vehicles, or to cover likely avenues of reinforcement. When the objective has been cleared, antiarmor platoons move forward to support a continuation of the attack, to join in the consolidation of the objective, or to prepare for any counterattack.

(4) The antiarmor platoon is best used to provide the commander with flexibility during the hasty attack. The antiarmor platoon can be employed within the base of fire to free tanks and infantry to close with the enemy. It can also be employed to--

Protect exposed flanks of battalion elements moving to close with the enemy.

Help block a potential or developing enemy attack against the battalion.

Help isolate the objective by engaging enemy armor on adjacent positions.

Section VIII. DEFENSIVE OPERATIONS

The purpose of the defense is to defeat the enemy and regain the initiative. Antiarmor platoons contribute to success in the defense by employing long-range fires to destroy attacking enemy armor. The defense is used to cause an enemy attack to fail, to gain time, to concentrate forces elsewhere, to control essential terrain, and to wear down the enemy forces before attacking them. This section focuses on the employment of antiarmor units in the main battle area (MBA). The techniques discussed apply equally to each of the five complementary elements.

3-28. BATTLEFIELD ORGANIZATION

The defensive battlefield is organized into five complementary elements as follows:

b. Security force operations forward and to the flanks of the defending force.

c. Defensive operations in the MBA.

d. Rear operations to retain freedom of action in the rear area.

e. Reserve operations in support of the main defensive effort.

3-29. ANTIARMOR SUPPORT IN THE DEFENSE

Provide early warning.
Deny enemy observation of the MBA.
Assist rearward passage of a covering force if deployed.
Deceive and disorganize the enemy.

(b) The security force is positioned to cover enemy avenues of approach into the defensive sector by occupying OPs on suitable terrain across the battalion front. Antiarmor platoons are positioned with OPs that have long-range fields of fire on high-speed avenues of approach.

(c) As the enemy approaches, the antiarmor platoons capitalize on their standoff and engage armor at maximum range. Supporting field artillery and mortars at the same time engage with indirect fires to disrupt enemy formations and force crews to button up. These concerted fires degrade the enemy's ability to acquire targets. They also help reduce pressure on any covering force elements remaining in contact, thus facilitating their passage to the rear. As the enemy closes, the security force withdraws by alternate or successive bounds to subsequent positions and continues to engage. The security force may keep up this process through the FEBA and into the battalion defensive area to further deceive the enemy as to the defensive scheme. It may disengage under covering fires from the battalion and move to positions in depth; or, it may assume another role within the battalion defense.

(2) Main battle area.

(b) Antiarmor platoons and sections are positioned to cover avenues of approach that afford long-range fields of fire. Tanks are employed where fields of fire are shorter and more restricted. Antiarmor elements are best positioned where they can take advantage of their standoff range (except ATGMs). To achieve this standoff and to mass fires with tanks and other antitank systems in a particular engagement area, antiarmor platoons are positioned in depth (Figure 3-37) or on the flanks of other defending units. When this is done, consideration must be given to positioning infantry near the TOW systems for security against ground attack.

Figure 3-37. Massing of fires using in-depth positions.

(d) When terrain or other conditions dictate that antiarmor elements locate with tanks or infantry (Figure 3-38), positions are selected to capitalize on each system's range capability as much as possible.

Figure 3-38. Massing of fires from a single position.

(f) The control and order of displacement of antiarmor elements is a special consideration. The vulnerabilities of ITVs and wheeled vehicle-mounted TOW systems can be minimized if displacement is planned and controlled. Factors affecting displacement are--

Commander's intent.
Closing speed of the enemy.
Obstacles affecting enemy movement.
Distance to subsequent positions.
Covered and concealed routes to subsequent positions.
Availability of armor and infantry overwatch elements.
Visibility.

(g) In daylight, the order of displacement is usually TOW systems, infantry, and tanks. During limited visibility, tanks may displace before infantry, but antiarmor elements are normally displaced first. Thorough reconnaissance of routes and subsequent positions is conducted to reduce confusion and movement time.

(h) In limited visibility conditions, antiarmor elements not equipped with thermal nightsights may be required to move their positions closer to engagement areas to compensate for reduced effective ranges. Another technique is to select initial defensive positions based on the worst visibility conditions expected, thereby reducing the requirement to reposition. The TOW nightsight enables the gunner to engage targets during degraded visibility conditions. However, target engagement distances can be severely reduced by such factors.

(i) In most cases, TOW systems are employed mounted. This permits rapid movement and minimizes their vulnerability to enemy direct and indirect fires. There are cases, though, such as defending in a built-up area or in mountainous terrain, when it may be advantageous to employ some systems dismounted. If possible, vehicles are used to transport the TOW system to its firing position and to resupply ammunition.

(3) Counterattack. Counterattacks are conducted to disrupt and destroy an attacking force. Antiarmor units participate in the counterattack as in the hasty or deliberate attack.

b. When the antiarmor platoon is used in the security force, the platoon as a whole, or some of its sections, are normally attached or placed under OPCON of the security force commander. Upon return to the MBA, the preferred method is to use the TOWs in mass, under the control of the platoon leader.

Section IX. RETROGRADE OPERATIONS

There are three types of retrograde operations: delay, withdrawal, and retirement. When faced with 3 tank and motorized threat, antiarmor elements greatly increase the battalion's capability to conduct the delay or the withdrawal. Because it involves the movement of forces not in contact away from the enemy, retirement will not be discussed in detail here. (For more information on retirement operations, see FM 7-20.)

Retrograde operations are organized movements to the rear or away from the enemy. They may be voluntary or forced by enemy action. Retrograde operations preserve the integrity of the force until the offense can be resumed. They may be conducted specifically to--

Permit the concentration of forces elsewhere.
Avoid combat under unfavorable conditions.
Gain time.
Shorten lines of communication and supply.
Harass, exhaust, and delay the enemy.
Draw the enemy into an unfavorable position.

3-30. DELAY

Employed as part of a covering force.

Employed in a wider-than-normal sector to allow the concentration of forces elsewhere (economy of force).

(2) The concept of the delay is to fight the enemy with enough force to cause him to expend time to deploy and maneuver to close with the delaying force. Each delay position is defended until the enemy's actions threaten decisive engagement. The delaying force then disengages, moves to a subsequent position, and repeats the process. Counterattacks are used to gain additional time or to free units that may have become decisively engaged. The major tasks that tile delaying battalion commander must accomplish are as follows:

Provide the required time.
Destroy as much of the enemy force as possible.
Cause the enemy to deploy and conduct successive attacks.
Preserve freedom of maneuver.
Preserve the force.

(3) The ability of the infantry battalion to accomplish those tasks is significantly increased when it is reinforced with additional antiarmor units, such as a separate antiarmor company, and when it is supported by attack helicopters, field artillery, and engineers.

(4) The battalion commander establishes control measures to control the delay. Commonly used control measures are sectors, delay positions or delay lines (phase lines), and contact points. The battalion's boundaries, period of delay, and, generally, its initial delay line is established by higher headquarters. To prevent exposed flanks and gaps, and to ensure maximum delay, the battalion commander carefully orchestrates when subordinate units move to subsequent delay lines or positions.

(5) Depending on the width of the assigned sector, the forces available, and information on the enemy, the battalion may delay on alternate or successive positions. In either case, it employs a security force, and it may retain a reserve if the sector is narrow enough.

b. Employment of Antiarmor Platoons.

Section VII,

(2) The battalion antiarmor element may also provide the nucleus for a mobile reserve. This reserve may be used to reinforce the fires of forward elements, assist the disengagement, cover the repositioning of forward elements, and provide depth along the most threatening avenues of approach.

c. Types.

Figure 3-39

(b) As the enemy closes with the delaying force, tanks and other antiarmor weapons add their fires. Fire control techniques explained in Section IV are used. When ordered to move, the unit disengages, moves, and occupies the next position. In daylight, the order of movement is normally antiarmor, infantry, and then tanks. At night, tanks may move before infantry. The antiarmor elements move first because of their vulnerability to direct and indirect fires, and because of their mobility disadvantage when compared to tanks and other armored vehicles. By moving first, the antiarmor elements are also able to set up and overwatch the movement of tanks and infantry.

Figure 3-39. Delay on successive positions.

Figure 3-40

(b) As in the delay on successive positions, the security force initiates the delay and then passes the fight to elements on the initial delay position. When ordered to do so, units on the initial delay position disengage and move through, or preferably around, the second position and occupy the third tier of positions. Responsibility for delaying the enemy is assumed by the units on the second position when units from the first position move through or around them. This delaying procedure is then repeated. Units on rearward positions assist disengagement and overwatch the movement of units from forward positions. The order of disengagement and movement is the same as for the delay on successive positions.

Figure 3-40. Delay on alternate positions.

3-31. WITHDRAWAL

Width of the front.
Forces available.
Amount of enemy contact.
Period of delay required.

(2) Ideally, the principal function of the DLIC is deception rather than combat; however, it must have combat power to stall the enemy until the withdrawal can be accomplished.

b. Employment of Antiarmor Units. Against an armored threat, antiarmor units are routinely used as part of the DLIC. Antiarmor elements are employed to enable massed fires to be placed on enemy high-speed avenues of approach. The organic antiarmor company or a separate antiarmor company reinforced with infantry may form the nucleus of the battalion DLIC. Tanks, if available, should also be included because of their greater protection, mobility, and firepower. Antiarmor sections, platoons, and companies fight as part of the DLIC the same as in the delay.

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