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APPENDIX J

SMOKE

Section I. ONBOARD SMOKE PRODUCERS

Smoke obscures vision and degrades most sighting devices. Both friendly and enemy forces use smoke to reduce their opponent's ability to see, move, and fight. Both forces may use smoke to screen their own movement, and they may place smoke to deceive. Thermal-imagery sights and viewers provide the means to see and shoot through most smoke.

The APC may have an onboard smoke device, the M243, and a Dragon thermal-imagery sight to see through the smoke.

The M243 smoke-grenade launcher is used to spread a smoke screen quickly. There are two four-tubed launchers, one on each side of the engine compartment hatch cover. Eight smoke grenades are simultaneously launched electrically from the gunner's position.

The M203 has a smoke round but it is used primarily for signaling. (See appendix B.)

Section II. TACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN A
SMOKE ENVIRONMENT

A platoon can use smoke to screen movement between positions; to screen occupation of, withdrawal from, or reoccupation of positions; or to screen a counterattack. The smoke can also cover displacement between delay positions. It can deceive the enemy as to the location and number of vehicles employed on each position, and it can slow the enemy enough to let the platoon occupy new positions.

Because there are only 16 smoke grenades per vehicle, the use of the grenade launcher must be controlled. The limited number of smoke grenades makes it necessary for the platoon to take advantage of all available smoke sources and conserve smoke grenades for self-defense. During movement, a platoon leader might direct a certain squad to launch its smoke grenades to counter antiarmor fires. The 70-meter-wide smoke screen may not screen the entire platoon from the enemy gunners. If not, the platoon leader could then direct another squad to launch its smoke grenades. All vehicles must take evasive action to get full advantage from the smoke screen.

If a smoke screen is needed to cover the crossing of an open area, the smoke-grenade launcher can be used to set up the smoke screen.

There are four general applications for smoke on the battlefield: obscuration, screening, marking and signaling, and deception.

Obscuration Smoke. Obscuration smoke is placed on or near enemy positions to interfere with his observation and fire. It is usually delivered by indirect fire from artillery and/or mortar shell, and occasionally by aircraft, rockets, or bomb-type dispensers. Employment of obscuration smoke on an attacking armored force may cause reduced speed, an inadvertent change in the direction of the attack, a premature deployment, or an increase in its radio transmissions.

Screening Smoke. Screening smoke is employed within areas of friendly operation, or in areas between friendly and enemy forces, to degrade enemy ground and aerial observation and fire. Screening is primarily intended to conceal friendly forces. Screening smoke usually requires large quantities of smoke for long periods and is normally produced by mechanical smoke generators, smokepots, smoke grenades, and aircraft-delivered dispensing systems. There are three types of screening smoke: smoke blankets, smoke hazes, and smoke curtains.

Marking and Signaling Smoke. These types of smoke are employed to communicate execution or termination of actions on the battlefield and to mark reference points, targets, or unit locations. They usually consist of colored or WP smoke. Occasionally, WP artillery or mortar rounds may be used to signal such things as the end of an artillery preparation on the target and the beginning of an assault.

Deception Smoke. Deception smoke may be used in coordination with other actions to create the illusion that some tactically significant event is occurring, in order to confuse or mislead the enemy. Combat forces which have developed stereotyped patterns of smoke employment might utilize deception smoke in dummy river crossings, withdrawals, or airmobile operations. Generally deception smoke is used in conjunction with other deceptive measures such as sound or electronic deception.

Smoke can affect both the psychological and physiological aspects of troop activities. Therefore, it can also affect unit operations.

Psychological. Screening smoke near friendly positions to reduce enemy observation may help maintain morale when personnel are aware of its purpose. However, personnel operating in smoke may develop fear or anxiety due to lack of visibility to detect the enemy see adjacent units, or distinguish terrain features. This can cause orientation difficulties. Smoke tends to isolate individuals, groups, or units, thus degrading their ability to fight. Individuals and units in this situation are vulnerable to deception through other sensory perceptions such as sound. Leaders also at all levels can suffer these effects. Because of the need for constant and detailed command and control, leaders can suffer mental exhaustion in a short time.

Physiological. While smoke produced by mechanical generators or munitions may not produce immediate physiological effects, extended exposure to large concentrations may produce secondary effects such as shortness of breath, inflammation of the respiratory system, dizziness, vertigo, or vomiting. Because of this, the Surgeon General requires that troops be masked whenever they are exposed to smoke. Vertigo may be overcome by leaving the smoke area or, when mounted, dismounting from the vehicle and getting close to the ground. Chemical warfare (CW) agents may also be delivered with smoke; therefore, it is wise to mask and intensify CW detection efforts when smoke is present.

Operational Factors. By limiting vision, smoke degrades the ability of soldier and unite to maneuver, fight, and visually communicate. Furthermore, it restricts observation of surrounding terrain and other combat elements on the battlefield. The natural tendency of a vehicle driver when encountering smoke is to avoid it or to slow movement upon entering it.

Combined Arms Operations. Smoke adversely affects battlefield systems that must operate in concert, such as tactical aircraft, helicopters, armor, artillery and infantry. Smoke limits scanning ability and prevents the operator/observer from taking timely measures or countermeasures once the enemy is detected.

Smoke reduces the ability of the attacker and the defender to acquire targets, navigate, and control their forces. The use of smoke must be carefully planned to insure that the intended advantage is gained.

Use of the thermal-imagery sight to see through smoke must be planned by the platoon leader. The cooldown period needed before the thermal sight can be used requires that it be turned on before the platoon can shoot through its own or the enemy's smoke.

Smoke is a major factor on the battlefield. Measures should be identified and techniques practiced that allow the platoons and squads to use smoke, both enemy and friendly, to their advantage.