Military

CHAPTER 7

Tactical Planning

THE ENGINEER MEMBER OF THE COMBINED-ARMS TEAM

A staff provides a commander with the resources needed to win wars, campaigns, and battles. Each member of a maneuver force's battle staff provides a specific battlefield function or operating system. The staffs plan, integrate, and synchronize all the force's capabilities against the enemy to achieve the desired effects and outcome the commander expects.

Each maneuver-force echelon from corps down to battalion/TF level has an engineer officer to integrate engineers into the combined-arms fight. For some echelons, the engineer is solely a staff officer. Usually, the engineer is an engineer unit commander/leader and a staff officer. In either case, the engineer is a special staff officer who is a member of the echelon's battle staff. He plays an integral part in developing plans and orders. Engineers work with all members of the battle staff and must understand their capabilities to effectively integrate and synchronize the M/S Battlefield Operating System (BOS).

PERSPECTIVE:

Final report from the chief engineer, European theater, World War II, observations and lessons learned.

1. It is exceedingly important at an early date in planning to establish all possible basic planning factors so that quick and reasonably accurate estimates can be given while changes in the operational plan are still under consideration.

2. Accuracy in estimates can be carried to an extreme. It leads to self-deception to express requirements in fractional figures when the basic factors and assumptions do not warrant such accuracy.

3. Because of the time required in the procurement of supplies from whatever sources they are obtained in their movement to the point of use, it is absolutely essential that requirements be computed at the earliest possible date. The first estimates may have to be quite rough and refinements may have to be made as the operational plans become firmer, but material requirements of some sort on the best available data must be set up early.

4. When the final results of planning have been made, someone, preferably the chief engineer, must survey the answers as a whole and decide whether or not the composite plan seems logical and sensible.

THE PLANNING PROCESS

The tactical decision-making process is a systematic approach to formulating tactical plans. The processes used are troop-leading procedures (TLPs), the estimate of the situation, METT-T, and IPB. These processes are interrelated. They are accomplished based on the amount of time and resources available. The following paragraphs discuss¯

Conducting TLPs.
Commander and staff actions.
Integrating the estimate of the situation, METT-T, and IPB into TLPs. TLPs, although continuous, are not cut-and-dried processes. There are no distinct start and stop points. The eight steps are not always performed sequentially; some can occur simultaneously. For example, the less time a unit has, the more it must adjust or abbreviate the TLPs.
Collecting, analyzing, and distributing information is a continuous staff requirement. Information that an engineer staff section analyzes is exchanged with other staff sections and used to update situation statuses. To successfully execute the mission, the engineer staff must focus on the information needed by the maneuver and the engineer commanders. They will conduct all of the above procedures, to include the engineer estimate, as the method for supporting the tactical decision-making process.
The engineer estimate is a logical thought process that supplements the estimate of the situation and the orders process. (See Appendix B for an example of the engineer estimate.) It is continuously refined and conducted concurrently with the maneuver unit. The engineer estimate has a specific purpose. It¯
Allows for integrating and synchronizing the M/S BOS.
Drives the coordination between the engineer, commander, and primary staff.
Drives the development of engineer plans, orders, and annexes. The tactical decision-making process is the planning framework for the combined-arms staff. The engineer must be familiar with the process; moreover, he must be familiar with how he participates and coordinates with the combined-arms staff.

STEP 1. RECEIVE THE MISSION

TLPs begin with the receipt of a new mission. A unit normally learns of a new mission through a warning order (WO) from the higher HQ, followed later by an operation order (OPORD). A mission could also be announced in a fragmentary order (FRAGO) as a change to the current operation, or it can be deduced by the commander as a result of ongoing operations. A unit should begin planning as early as possible. The higher HQ should take no more than one-third of the available time it has to issue its order. Likewise, each successive unit has the same obligation to issue its order in a timely manner.

The engineer commander and staff will focus on several essential components of the basic order and engineer annex. They are the¯

Enemy situation.
Mission paragraph.
Task organization.
Service-support paragraph.
Engineer annex. From these components, the engineer commander and staff determine the¯
Type of operation.
Enemy and friendly situations.
Assets available.
Time available. As soon as the engineer commander learns of a new mission, he should issue an initial WO to subordinate units. The initial WO should inform them about the nature and timing of the new mission. The engineer staff will then convene and conduct the mission analysis. It is very likely that the engineer staff will conduct parallel planning during the estimate of the situation.

STEP 2. ISSUE A WO

The engineer commander should issue a WO to units immediately after the maneuver commander issues his planning guidance. The WO should be brief but contain enough information for the units to prepare for the mission. Additional WOs can be issued later to keep units informed and for parallel planning to occur. WOs normally do not have a specific format; however, some of the information that should be in a WO is as follows:

Enemy and friendly situations (brief).
Changes in task organization.
Earliest time of the move.
Nature and time of the operation.
Time and place of the OPORD.
Other specified tasks.

STEP 3. MAKE A TENTATIVE PLAN

The process that forms the basis for the entire operation is performed in this step. The time factor is a major influence on how the estimate of the situation is performed. The three tactical decision-making processes are deliberate, combat, and quick.

The three processes are highly influenced by the element of time. The most common process conducted is the combat decision-making process (CDMP). The CDMP facilitates the demands of the ongoing operation by matching the realities of the high-tempo battlefield where windows of opportunity for action are fleeting and tactical demands challenge the command continuously. The CDMP is used during operations when the command may be executing and planning up to three operations simultaneously. Normally in the CDMP, a single friendly COA is war-gamed against enemy COAs.

Mission Analysis

The first step of the command estimate process is the mission analysis. The combined-arms staff or engineer staff will present the maneuver/engineer commander with facts and assumptions that he will use for analyzing the mission and developing COAs. The information pertains to both friendly and enemy situations. The engineer staff officer assists the commander in developing facts and assumptions by participating in the IPB and conducting the engineer battlefield assessment (EBA).

The IPB centers on templating enemy forces, anticipating their capabilities, and predicting their intentions based on threat doctrinal norms and the order of battle. The engineer must understand the maneuver G2's/Intelligence Officer's (US Army) (S2's) doctrinal and situation template so that he can analyze threat engineer capabilities and the order of battle. The situation template becomes the foundation for the maneuver G2/S2 and engineer coordination. During threat evaluation and integration, the maneuver G2/S2 and the engineer must work together. For example, obstacle intelligence (OBSTINTEL) and templating are developed in concert with the S2's templating of a motorized rifle battalion's defense. The engineer S2 will use the situation template to further develop intelligence requirements (IR), priority intelligence requirements (PIR), and named areas of interest (NAIs) to support the event template and the reconnaissance and surveillance (R&S) plan. The engineer will ensure that OBSTINTEL collection is integrated into the R&S plan.

The engineer develops facts and assumptions and supports the IPB process through the EBA. He analyzes the terrain and weather and assesses the impact that they will have on military/engineer operations. He analyses the terrain using the following five military aspects of terrain:

Observation and fields of fire.
Cover and concealment.
Obstacles.
Key terrain.
AAs. The function of the terrain analysis is to reduce the uncertainties regarding the effects of natural and man-made terrain on friendly and enemy operations.
Analyzing the military aspects of the terrain is accomplished primarily through preparing the modified combined obstacle overlay (MCOO). The engineer S2 will assist the maneuver G2/S2 in developing the MCOO. It is the basic product of the battlefield-area evaluation, terrain analysis, and weather analysis phases of the IPB process. The MCOO is the graphic terrain analysis on which all other IPB products are based. A slope overlay (for example, TerraBase) can determine trafficability and intervisibility for intelligence collection, target acquisition, weapons capabilities, and obstacle integration within the AO. These products will be used for COA development and analysis.
The second component of the EBA is to analyze the threat engineer mission and capabilities. The first step is to understand the enemy's mission and consider its doctrinal use of engineers. The engineer S2 uses the maneuver G2/S2's doctrinal and situation template to develop the threat engineer order of battle. He will further assess the enemy's M/CM/S capabilities and template its effort and location. In coordination with the S2, the engineer S3 will recommend IR/PIR, attempt to augment the reconnaissance effort, and monitor the collection to confirm or deny the situation template.
In the defense, the engineer templates the enemy's¯
Mobility capabilities and location in its formation.
Use of SCATMINEs.
Engineers in the reconnaissance effort.
High-value target (HVT) (bridging and breaching assets). In the offense, the engineer templates the enemy's¯
Tactical- and protective-obstacle effort.
Use of SCATMINEs.
Survivability and fortification effort. The third component of the EBA is to evaluate friendly engineer capabilities and their impact on mission accomplishment. To perform this function, the engineer uses the information he developed in the first step (receive the mission). He evaluates the task organization to determine the engineer organization and assets available. He considers the possibility of additional support from the maneuver force and the engineer higher HQ. The engineer must also consider the availability of critical resources. After he determines the total assets available, he uses planning factors or known unit work rates to determine his capabilities.
The engineer staff officer combines his analysis of the terrain and the enemy's and friendly's capabilities to form facts and assumptions about¯
Likely enemy engineer effort and the most probable enemy COA.
Critical friendly and enemy tactical events.
Potential enemy vulnerabilities.
The effect of these factors on the mission. The facts-and-assumptions process is lengthy, and the engineer must maintain his focus on the information required by the maneuver commander and his battle staff to make decisions. The EBA is a continuous process that is continually refined. Each time new information is collected, the engineer must evaluate the impact/effect on the mission and refine the facts and assumptions as necessary.

Higher Mission and Intent Analysis

When analyzing the mission, the OPORD should be studied in front of a map with the overlays posted. This will allow a better understanding of the terrain on which the operation will take place. It will allow implied tasks to be more readily identified. It is a good idea to list all identified tasks on paper. The list can be checked later to ensure that all tasks have been addressed in the plan. The following should be identified during the mission analysis:

Specified tasks. These are the tasks stated in the OPORD. Specific tasks are found in paragraphs 2 and 3 of the OPORD; however, they could be found elsewhere in the OPORD. River-crossing operations, obstacle-control measures, and combined-arms breaching are examples of potential specified tasks.
Implied tasks. These are the tasks not stated in the OPORD that must be accomplished to complete the overall mission or to satisfy any of the specified tasks. River-crossing, combined-arms breaching, and obstacle operations are typical implied tasks.
Essential tasks. These tasks are taken from the list of specified and implied tasks that must be accomplished to satisfy the overall mission or to satisfy any of the specified tasks.
Assets available. These are assets allocated in the task organization or discussed in organizations for combat in paragraph 3 of the OPORD. More importantly, the relationship between the mission and the assets is critical to the engineer. The folding together of time, space, and assets is critical to the success of a mission. For example, the staff engineer must assess the capabilities of combat, CS, and CSS assets to plan a breaching operation and other requirements to support a transition to the defense.
Limitations. These are restrictions placed on a commander specifying things that cannot be done and/or things that must be done. Constraints are specified tasks that limit freedom of action. Obstacle zones and belts are excellent examples of limitations because they limit the area in which tactical obstacles can be emplaced.
Risk. The higher HQ might specify a risk that the commander is willing to accept to accomplish the mission (for example, an economy of force in a certain area).
Time analysis. The element of time is not clearly identified for analysis in any of the staff estimates. However, time analysis must be an integral part of the mission analysis and must be conducted continuously until the mission is accomplished. Once the commander has an understanding of his mission and the time available, he must allocate the time for the various phases of the operation. This allocation is often done by reverse planning. Knowing the time to execute the operation, the commander must consider the amount of time needed for the unit to accomplish troop-leading tasks. The time analysis produces a schedule of activities that must occur (time line). Finally, as a part of the mission-analysis brief, the executive officer (XO) will recommend the time line for the operation.

Commander's Restated Mission and Planning Guidance

This may be the first time the maneuver or engineer commander is able to meet with his staff. The briefing will include the tasks identified and the restated mission that the staff recommends. The commander will approve or disapprove the restated mission and issue his planning guidance to the staff. The commander and his staff should develop a list of priorities to discuss at this briefing. This is the staff engineer's opportunity to raise any questions with the commander. The commander's planning guidance should consist of the following:

Restated mission.
Higher commanders' intents (two levels up).
His own intent (required).
COAs for his staff to consider.
Time and place of decision brief (time line).
PIR.
Commander's critical-information requirements (CCIR).
Effects desired on the enemy force.
Risk assessment. The commander's guidance is the single most important element of the estimate process. His ability to state his vision for the mission will provide the staff with a defined focus required to develop and analyze COAs. The engineer commander must provide his guidance as it applies to vertical and horizontal planning. The engineer staff will focus primarily on identifying, integrating, and synchronizing tasks to support the engineer mission (vertical). The engineer staff will also focus their efforts on conducting the above, but they will concentrate on how the engineer is integrated and synchronized in support of the maneuver unit's mission (horizontal).
Step 5 of the TLP is to conduct reconnaissance. However, the commander may decide to conduct his reconnaissance at this time instead of later. Reconnaissance missions given to the units could also be issued at this time.

COA Development

A COA is a possible plan open to the commander that would accomplish the mission. It is usually stated in broad terms with the details determined during war gaming. The engineer staff officers come prepared with their tools for planning. The EBA, produced by the engineer staff, provides a reference for their participation in the COA development and analysis. Depending on the time available and officers' experience, the G3/S3 will decide on their level of participation in developing COAs. The following are the steps involved in developing a COA:

Analyze relative force ratios.
Array initial forces.
Identify critical events, enemy's and friendly's.
Develop an initial scheme of maneuver
Determine C2 means and control measures.
Prepare COA statement(s) and sketch(s). At a minimum, the engineer ensures that the maneuver G3/S3 understands the engineer task organization and available combat power. He begins to develop his scheme of engineer operations to support the COAs. His initial scheme is a rough draft and is refined during the war-gaming process.

COA Analysis

An analysis identifies the best COA for recommendation to the commander. It can begin with the G3/S3 briefing the staff on each friendly COA. At this time, a quick analysis by the engineer might identify a COA that is not feasible in his area of responsibility; therefore it should be eliminated or modified immediately.

The combined-arms staff, led by the chief of staff or XO, will analyze (war-game) each friendly COA against enemy COAs. War gaming is a logical step-by-step process that relies heavily on tactical judgment and experience. The analysis process is action, reaction, and counteraction. The war-gaming technique used (AA, box, belt) is based on time and staff training. Detailed war gaming is designed to accomplish the following:

Achieving the desired end state of a COA.
Listing advantages and disadvantages.
Assessing the feasibility of the COA.
Completing the event template.
Identifying requirements for CS and CSS.
Synchronizing combat functions/critical events.
Completing the synchronization matrix and decision support template (DST).
Developing the engineer task organization.
Developing the OPORD. Detailed war gaming focuses on the timing aspect of the operation. The friendly COA selected will be war-gamed in a deliberate fashion against the enemy's COAs. A myriad of tasks from the commitment of reserves, close air support (CAS), indirect fire, and the employment of family of scatterable mines (FASCAM) will be synchronized. Additional NAIs are identified and included in the event template. Targeted areas of interest (TAIs) and decision points are identified and annotated on the DST. The DST, also referred to as the revised operations overlay, is the result of detailed war gaming. (See FM 101-5 for more detail.)
The engineer must be an active player. For example, he must war-game the timing aspects of situational obstacles, obscuring and suppressing for combined-arms breaching, and the positioning of forces and material for current and future operations. It is through detailed war gaming that the battlefield is truly synchronized. Understanding basic movement rates and other planning factors is paramount in war gaming.
The fundamental role of a combined-arms staff is to synchronize and apply all the capabilities of the unit and contribute to the success of the mission. The staff must record the results of each war game on the synchronization matrix and DST. This will ensure that every member of the combined-arms team understands when and where they need to apply their capabilities to achieve the effects and outcome the commander expects.
The maneuver G3/S3 will portray the friendly force while the G2/S2 will interpret the enemy situation template and anticipate enemy actions. The engineer must be ready to interject thoughts and identify critical events/tasks as they apply to his BOS. He identifies engineer tasks and determines if a task is feasible based on the assets available. Also, he must articulate the actions of threat engineers as the battle is played out. The war-gaming session must assess the COA's feasibility and capture issues, tasks, and actions that are discussed during the session. The information gathered will be used to further develop the event template and the synchronization matrix. The engineer uses this information to further develop his scheme of engineer operations.

COA Comparison

The fourth step in the command estimate process consists of comparing options and choosing a COA. The actual comparison may follow any technique that will allow a recommendation to be reached. An effective technique for comparing COAs is to use a comparison matrix. Each COA is compared to the others, using specific criteria. While comparing COAs, the engineer will determine which scheme of engineer operations best supports accomplishing the mission.

Recommendation/Decision

The staff recommends the best COA to the commander. Each COA is outlined, the advantages and disadvantages of each presented, and a recommendation made. The maneuver commander considers the staff recommendation presented by the G3/S3 and announces his decision and concept/intent. At this point, the engineer commander can issue another WO to the subunits with the updated information that the maneuver commander provided. This will better facilitate the planning for engineer subordinate units. The engineer staff officer makes his recommendation to the commander during the decision brief. The type and amount of detail that the engineer briefs depend on the needs and preferences of the individual commander. In general, it covers the¯

Concept of engineer support.
Engineer mission priorities.
Critical engineer events/actions.
Task-organization and command/support relationships.
Obstacle overlay (including SCATMINE employment authority and concept for use by system type).
Survivability estimate and priority.
Critical tasks directed to subordinate units.
Engineer's work time line. Other members of the battle staff brief information that the engineer provides during the estimate process. This is particularly true of the intelligence portion of the decision brief and the comparison of COAs. Once the commander makes his decision, the estimate provides the bulk of the information needed to prepare the maneuver force's OPLAN or OPORD.

STEP 4. INITIATE MOVEMENT

Movement can be started with a new WO, FRAGO, or a movement order. Units may have to reposition to start the operation on time. Movement of subordinate units may be necessary to change task organization. Some movement, especially by reconnaissance units, may be necessary immediately after receiving the WO from the higher HQ. If there is enough time to issue the OPORD before any movement begins, the movement instructions can be included in the OPORD. Often movement may have to occur simultaneously with planning.

STEP 5. CONDUCT RECONNAISSANCE

Reconnaissance should be conducted whenever possible. The situation, especially time available, dictates the type and quality of reconnaissance. To best use available time, leaders should do an initial map reconnaissance to find routes and locations to reconnoiter before departing. For best results, map reconnaissance begins immediately on receipt of the higher HQ WO; it should continue through mission accomplishment. Reconnaissance requires a combined-arms effort, and the combat engineer can be a key player. The fundamental imperative is to train the reconnaissance force.

STEP 6. COMPLETE THE PLAN

Upon completing the detailed war game and decision brief, the staff quickly prepares the plan/order. The tasks identified through the war-gaming sessions are used in preparing the plan/order. Specific engineer tasks and instructions that involve maneuver units should be written in paragraph 3 of the OPORD. All other tasks related to the engineer scheme are included in the engineer order and annex. Multiple copies of the plan/order must be made, and overlays must be accurately copied.

STEP 7. ISSUE THE ORDER

An OPORD is a directive issued by a commander to subordinate commanders for a coordinated execution of an operation. A FRAGO is an abbreviated OPORD used to convey changes to an OPORD, as required by the situation. The order should be issued at the time and place stated in the WO. The most secure means available should be used. As a minimum, an overlay order, including an execution matrix, should be issued to subordinates.

The engineer should brief the engineer portion of the maneuver order. He will brief significant engineer tasks as they relate to the scheme of maneuver. This is his only opportunity to brief subordinate maneuver commanders on the scheme of engineer operations. He ensures that they understand the task organization and specific instructions to subordinate units.

STEP 8. SUPERVISE

Once orders are issued, the engineer commander and staff supervise combat preparation and execution. Rehearsals, precombat checks and inspections, intelligence updates, and battle tracking are checked and monitored.

Reports are submitted according to the unit's tactical SOP. Battle maps and status charts are accurately maintained. This cannot be overemphasized. The reporting scheme that the commander establishes must be efficient. Too many reports will overload the system. Reports should be focused on what the commander needs to make critical decisions.

The planning process is a systematic approach to formulating plans and orders. The TLPs, estimate of the situation, METT-T, and IPB are the processes used. They are interrelated and accomplished based on the amount of time and resources available.

PLANS AND ORDERS

Once the commander decides on a COA, the staff immediately organizes and compiles its estimates and produces the OPORD. An OPORD is a directive that the commander issues to subordinate commanders for a coordinated execution of an operation.

MANEUVER FORCE OPORD/OPLAN

The engineer assists the rest of the staff to produce the order or plan. The primary concerns follow:

Task Organization

The OPORD title, and/or a separate annex, depicts the task organization. The engineer staff officer lists the engineer units under the proper control HQ, with the correct command or support relationships.

Engineer Concept

The OPORD, paragraph 3, Execution, subparagraph Concept, describes how the commander sees the operation from start to finish. This usually includes a brief concept for the engineers. The engineer concept clearly states priorities to maneuver units or tasks. It avoids overly broad generalities such as a priority listing of M/CM/S headings. Instead, the concept gives the commander's specific priorities for the operation. Sample priorities could be that TF A shifts to TF B on seizure of Objective C or priority to Obstacle Belt A1A then to Obstacle Belt A2A.

SCATMINE Concept

The engineer, G3/S3, and fire-support officer (FSO) form the SCATMINE concept, as part of the engineer concept, while they develop and analyze the COAs. The SCATMINE concept briefly states how the commander intends to use SCATMINEs, by system type. Also, it gives control measures to facilitate future maneuvers and includes approval authority for employing short and long self-destruct mines. Other parts of the OPORD (particularly the engineer annex and fire-support annex) contain the detailed plans of implementing the SCATMINE concept of operation.

Engineer-Unit Subparagraph

Paragraph 3 of the OPORD includes taskings to subordinate units. The engineer-unit subparagraph assigns engineer tasks identified throughout the estimate process. When the OPORD title does not clearly state the engineer task organization, the engineer-unit subparagraph should.

Service Support

Paragraph 4 includes required materiel or services to support the engineer units and their missions. At division level and above, service-support information often appears in a separate annex.

Engineer Annex

This annex contains information relevant to engineer operations but not required for executing the other aspects of the plan. It helps to keep the basic order short. It also consolidates all information that units involved in engineer operations require. The maneuver commander directs it as part of his order to the entire force, not just to engineer units.

Orders at corps and division levels generally contain a written engineer annex using the five-paragraph format shown in FM 101-5. Below division level, the engineer annex can use the five-paragraph format, or it can be a combination of an overlay, obstacle list, execution matrix, or a verbal briefing.

ENGINEER UNIT OPORD/OPLAN

Engineers often begin work on tasks for a maneuver force before the tactical plan is complete. The engineer commander issues a WO, as soon as possible, so that his subordinates can do this. He moves units and materials in advance of specific, detailed instructions from the maneuver commander. Once the maneuver plan is ready, the engineer commander completes his plan quickly and issues the order. He uses one-third or less of the available planning time at his level and leaves the remaining two-thirds of it for subordinates to do their planning.

The engineer unit commander issues his own order to the unit to perform the mission that the controlling HQ assigns. The commander's own tactical estimate provides most of the information needed for the order. The order explains the plan clearly, so that subordinate leaders can make decisions and implement the commander's intent, even when communications fail. Appendix C gives the format and explains the contents of the engineer unit order.

NEWSLETTER

Join the GlobalSecurity.org mailing list

Advertise with Us | About Us | Site Map | Privacy