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Military

CHAPTER 5

Operational Engineering

THEATER DEVELOPMENT

An adequate sustainment base is essential for success in any operation. The Army's ability to marshal, transport, and distribute large quantities of materiel and maintain assigned personnel and equipment can make the difference between victory and defeat in conflict or war. The concept of materiel need in large quantities transcends conflicts and war. Large quantities of Class IV force-protection, obstacle, and force bed-down construction materiel are significant in contingency operations. Establishing a theater sustainment base depends greatly on the extent and nature of the existing military and HN capabilities in the theater before hostilities begin. In lesser-developed regions of the world, the sustainment base may have to be developed at the same time as combat and operational-level forces are deploying. In forward-presence theaters (such as Korea) HNS agreements assist in operating and maintaining the sustainment base. Force reception, onward movement, and sustainment facilities are most critical during the initial stages of any potential operation.

PERSPECTIVE:

Initially, the Central Command (CENTCOM) CINC and staff determined that Operation Desert Shield was to be sustained in the theater by the premise of "minimum essential" support from troop units and maximum support from HN and contracting sources. The 20th Engineer Brigade's (corps) (airborne) commander served as the theater engineer, in addition to commanding engineer support to the forward fight. The brigade's primary mission was to provide theater troop bed-down and logistic base-construction support. The brigade worked closely with the USACE Middle East/Africa Projects Office (MEAPO), US Army Forces Command (FORSCOM), and Third US Army engineer staffs to take care of theater needs. Liaison was also maintained with the US Army Reserve, 416th ENCOM, which was alerted but not mobilized and not deployed until December 1990.
The CINC made decisions not to deploy theater engineer construction units, initially, because of their large strategic lift requirements. During the initial stages of Operation Desert Shield, it became quickly apparent that HNS and contracting would not be able to handle the massive amount of horizontal construction needed to logistically sustain and move forces in theater. One engineer group with three combat heavy engineer battalions was deployed and became fully engaged in supporting the XVIII US Corps's sustainment mission. The 20th Brigade, MEAPO, and Third US Army engineer staffs were not adequately staffed to control increasing theater-engineer requirements. When VII US Corps was alerted for movement to Saudi Arabia from Europe, a theater-engineer force structure was developed, approved, mobilized, and deployed by the CINC. This force structure included the 416th ENCOM, one engineer brigade (theater army); three more engineer groups; seven more combat heavy engineer battalions; a composite engineer battalion; and numerous companies, teams, and detachments. Several table(s) of distribution and allowances (TDA) engineer units were also deployed to provide theater power and installation support. The 22d Support Command (SUPCOM) engineer served as the CENTCOM forward engineer with contract responsibility for all services, since the command was not adequately staffed to manage the volume of construction by the other services.

ENGINEER FUNCTIONS

The ASCC tailors the engineer structure to theater requirements. All engineer units (combat, construction, and topographic) are focused on operations in the CZ. They also support the theater by providing general-engineering support. Engineers must be closely tied into current and future operational planning and have their own C2 structure to ensure the timely and proper execution of the intent and scheme of maneuver. Engineers at the operational level are responsible for constructing, maintaining, and rehabilitating the theater support base. This includes support to other services and agencies and other military forces in joint and multinational TOs. The ability of CSS units to conduct sustainment operations, as well as movement and sheltering of combat/CS forces, depends on adequate, responsive engineer support.

The number and type of operational-level engineer support units depend on the size of the support base required, HN infrastructure, mission, availability of existing engineer support brought to the TO, and perceived threat in the rear area. Operational-level engineer units provide¯

TOPOGRAPHIC SUPPORT

 The topographic battalion is assigned to the senior engineer commander. The CINC establishes topographic priorities. Topographic missions include analyzing terrain for IPB and tactical-decision aids, updating existing maps and charts, and establishing geodetic survey controls in the operational area. The topographic battalion is tailored to meet the requirements of the particular operational area. This unit supplements and enhances the DMA effort by compiling data from various sources into special-purpose topographic products such as¯

CONSTRUCTION PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT

 The CINC establishes broad plans and policies for theater construction in consonance with guidance from the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS). They are based on coordinated planning by construction representatives from all service components.

US ARMY CORPS OF ENGINEERS

The USACE provides support to the ASCC and engineer units with facilities-management and construction missions. The theater USACE element commander may support multiple commanders within the ASCC and other service components. The USACE forward-element missions include¯

CONSTRUCTION POLICIES AND PROCEDURES

 The CINC establishes construction standards and policies that guide engineer operations whether Air Force, Navy, or Army units perform them. These standards and policies provide for allocating limited resources to accomplish the most vital tasks. The CINC also establishes priorities for various types of facilities. These priorities guide subordinate engineer elements in prioritizing the missions given to them. Each engineer HQ must prioritize its requirements according to operational-area priorities and elevate any conflicts up the chain of command for resolution.

CONSTRUCTION STANDARDS

Generally, wartime facility requirements are satisfied, in priority, by¯

CONSTRUCTION PRIORITIES

 Engineer work requirements throughout the operational area normally exceed capabilities. Establishing a broad priority system by the CINC assists in applying resources against only those tasks that are most critical to success. Table 5-1 provides a framework for assessing the priority of required engineer support.

CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT

The CINC may retain control at his level or delegate construction management to the ENCOM. In the absence of the ENCOM, the senior operational-level engineer commander is normally delegated to perform this function. The ENCOM manages all construction, repair, and facility modifications in the COMMZ. This provides centralized control with decentralized execution. The ENCOM also manages all troop, contract, and HN construction repair operations in the COMMZ. This structure ensures that theater-construction assets are employed according to theater priorities. The ENCOM responsibilities include¯

WARTIME-CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURES

 Decentralized execution of the theater-construction program requires that work requests enter the system at the lowest possible level. Alignment along area-support boundaries provides established conduits through the ASG. If the ASG cannot accomplish the work with its organic assets, it prioritizes the requests and provides them to the supporting engineer group. When the work cannot be done, the engineer group enters the requests into a construction/repair backlog and passes them to the engineer brigade for resolution.

The civil-affairs teams receive HN requests for US engineer support and pass them to the engineer group for execution. The engineer group enters these requests into its work load, according to established theater priorities. Troop, contract, or HN effort accomplishes the requests, as applicable.

Other US services submit work requests directly to the engineer brigade in charge of the AO. The engineer brigade prioritizes these requests, according to the theater priorities, and provides them to the engineer group who supports the area requiring the work. When the work seemingly cannot be done, the ENCOM resolves the problem.

The ENCOM may receive work required in support of the theater base-development plan (BDP). The ENCOM prioritizes the work and passes it to the appropriate engineer brigade for accomplishment. They may also redistribute backlog work to other engineer brigades that are not fully committed.

This two-way flow of backlog and tasking identifies the required work load to each level of the organization. The engineer group can do objective scheduling according to theater priorities. Only an exceptional case needs to be referred to higher HQ to settle a question of priority. FM 5-116 contains a detailed flow chart that summarizes these procedures.

GENERAL CONSTRUCTION PRINCIPLES

When planning construction projects in a TO, you should¯

TROOP CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMENT

 Theater-specific standard designs are usually developed at the ENCOM for use throughout the theater. Construction directives may be issued by the ENCOM; however, this is normally only for large installation requirements, such as a base camp or logistical facility. The engineer group issues construction directives to subordinate units that contain the specifications and drawings needed to construct the new facility. These directives are generally for construction only. Occasionally, the engineer group issues directives for design and construction. These are normally limited to upgrading or repairing existing facilities or site adaptation of standard designs.

The engineer group staff inspects unit projects for compliance with plans, specifications, and sound construction practices. If support from a construction-support company, a dump-truck company, a pipeline-construction company, or a port-construction company is required, the engineer group issues a separate directive to that unit specifying the support it is to provide.

CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

Engineer units are unable to perform their missions without adequate logistics support. If engineer commanders are to be successful in the TO, they must understand the logistics system and know where to go for required logistics support. Massive requirements for Class IV construction materials distinguish engineer requirements from those of other units in the theater.

Adequate Class IV supplies are central to the ability of operational-level engineer units to construct and maintain facilities to support the sustainment base. For this reason, the ENCOM usually plays a key role in managing theater-construction materials allocation. Engineers look to their supporting material management center (MMC) for most of their Class IV construction items. Adequate Class IV supplies and timely delivery of the materials to the work sites are central to mission accomplishment. Engineers must be very specific with their requirements and work with their supply support activity to develop a delivery plan that gets the required materials to the right place at the right time to keep engineers working. Engineer participation in local purchasing and cooperation with the ASCC are key to adapting and substituting locally available materials.

Unlike other classes of supply, Class IV construction materials are not provided based on documented consumption rates, and there are no anticipated surge rates. It may take several months between initiating the request and for the materials to arrive in theater. Therefore, it is crucial that operational-level engineers estimate their requirements as soon as possible and initiate the requests before deployment or operations. Class IV procurement will often take on extraordinary procedures such as local purchase, LOGCAP, or contracting at locations in the proximity of the theater. The ENCOM submits initial material forecasts using the civil-engineering support plan (CESP) data and BDPs.

Successful theater-construction execution depends on an adequate supply of materials as well as construction capability. Typically, during the early stages of a contingency operation, war-damage repair and construction of mission-essential facilities dominate engineer-construction activities. As the operational area matures, it requires that more substantial facilities and construction forces be made available. The ENCOM must ensure that adequate construction materials are forecasted to meet anticipated construction requirements. These materials must be flexible enough to meet a variety of requirements as engineers respond to changing conditions.

CONSTRUCTION-PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS

One of the primary responsibilities of the ENCOM staff is to forecast the types and quantities of engineer materials required for the theater. When an operation plan (OPLAN) is being executed, the CESP usually establishes the initial requirements during predeployment planning. Planning during the operation requires good intelligence concerning damaged roads, airfields or infrastructure facilities, inadequate facilities that require upgrading, and a list of additional facilities that are required. The Theater Construction Management System (TCMS) software package is designed to assist engineer planners in assessing theater facility requirements for deploying forces. The TCMS may also be used as a guide in determining material requirements for needed facilities. In some cases, existing facilities are modified to meet military requirements first, and then material requirements are estimated.

The ENCOM staff must also determine what materials are available from local sources. The materials may be from local manufacturers, commercial stockpiles, or HN government assets. Materials that are not locally available must either be procured out of theater or produced in theater by engineer units. Materials in the latter category include aggregate, concrete, construction water, asphalt, and lumber. A local procurement system must be established to expedite procuring local materials. Local procurement may be restricted in some theaters on prices set by the contracting officer's representative (COR) to avoid inflating the cost of construction materials in the HN.

CONSTRUCTION-DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

Designers must consider the availability of construction materials when designing projects for the AO. Many designs may not be practical because of logistics considerations. For example, although AFCS and TCMS designs are adjusted for various climates (such as temperate, desert, tropic, and arctic), they may have to be modified to use unique local building materials and practices.

Military designers must know about local construction standards and materials commonly used in the region. Designs must include using local materials and be flexible about using substitute materials. This is particularly important when designing structures in contingency theaters. Many facilities are turned over to local authorities, and their operating and maintenance capabilities during long-term use must be considered.

The construction standard for an operational area is one of the following:

CONTRACTOR SUPPORT

 The USACE or NAVFAC construction contract-management organization provides control of contract work. In a forward-presence theater, personnel staffing an existing USACE organization in that theater (such as the US Army Engineer District¯Europe in Central Europe or the US Army Engineer Far East District in Korea) provide USACE support. In a contingency theater, the CINC, ASCC, and USACE for those countries that have not already had a CCA assigned will determine this support. For more information on this subject, see Chapter 4.

BASE DEVELOPMENT

Base-development planning is an ongoing process. The theater BDP results from concurrent planning by the CINC's staff and the service component staff considering strategic plans and resources. The ENCOM staff is responsible for the more detailed planning for each base. In peacetime, the CINC develops contingency plans for various scenarios. Logistics-support planning is general in nature and is only done to the extent necessary to identify resource requirements and assess OPLAN supportability.

In a wartime environment, strategic changes may cause a shift in theater objectives to a new AO. This, in turn, generates a requirement for new bases and/or major construction projects at existing bases in the new AO. Under these circumstances, base-development planning initially is more general in support of the development of COAs. The ENCOM then adds details to support the selected COA. It can use the AFCS or the TCMS to help determine the engineer force structure required to execute the BDP. In developing a time-phased plan for constructing the needed facilities, the ENCOM considers the¯

REAL ESTATE PLANNING AND ACQUISITION

 The USACE Fwd element provides technical real estate guidance and advice to the CINC. It recommends real estate policies and operational procedures. It acquires, manages, disposes of, administers payment for rent and damages of, handles claims for, and prepares records and reports for real estate used within the theater. The theater element also exercises staff supervision over real estate operations of subordinate Army commands and provides real estate support to other US services.

Real estate planning must be initiated in the preparatory phases of a campaign by a planning group, which includes the USACE Fwd and representatives of all service commanders. The ASCC engineer participates in all planning activities. Besides plans for real estate operations during hostilities, real estate requirements for the occupation period after hostilities cease should be considered.

US forces acquire the real estate that they need by seizure or requisition and without formal documentation. They resort to seizure only when an urgent military situation arises and only with the approval of the commander who is responsible for that area. HN property may be occupied without documentation to the extent that tactical operations dictate and according to US/HN agreements. Normally, property is obtained through requisition, which involves a demand on the owner of the property or the owner's representative. No rent or other compensation is paid for requisitioned or seized real estate in a CZ or for damages resulting from acts of war or from ordinary military wear and tear.

Outside the active CZ, real estate is normally acquired by lease or HN agreements, and all transactions are documented thoroughly under the applicable provisions of theater directives. Large tracts of real estate are required for ports, staging areas, training and maneuver areas, leave centers, supply depots, and HQ installations. Some of this property may be highly developed and may have considerable value to the civilian population. Procedures must be followed to provide the property required while ensuring that the legal rights of owners are protected.

OPERATION, REPAIR, AND MAINTENANCE OF FACILITIES AND UTILITIES

Electrical power may be available from commercial sources in a mature theater. Power-generation capability, however, is required in most contingency theaters where commercial power is unreliable. Distribution systems are required, and adequate engineer units must be provided to do the necessary work. Standby power is required for critical facilities served with commercial power. Potable-water supply and waste-water collection systems require maintenance at most COMMZ installations and bases. The HN may provide the water and operate sewage treatment facilities, but RPMA assets are required to maintain the utilities systems on bases and installations in the COMMZ to repair limited war damages. Austere water and sanitary facilities are used for troop bases constructed in a contingency operation.

The operation, maintenance, or repair of tactical generators is not a RPMA function. Normally each ASG has an assigned unit that provides RPMA support to facilities located within the ASG's area of responsibility.

FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION

Engineer fire-fighting units that support the TAACOM provide the fire protection that is not available from the HN's or the base facilities engineer's section. Fire-fighting assets are allocated based on the troop population and the size of storage areas.

REFUSE COLLECTION AND DISPOSAL

The TAACOM establishes sanitary landfills for its operational areas. It is also responsible for trash and refuse collection. An engineer utilities detachment supporting an ASG normally establishes and operates the landfill. In many areas, existing HN landfills are used; in other areas, contract landfills are available. The ASG may use local labor to operate landfills. Commanders must give special consideration to hazardous waste, particularly waste products generated by medical facilities and maintenance operations. Special considerations in disposing of hazardous waste could be a factor. US federal or HN environmental laws may require packaging and/or removal of these containers from the theater.

ENGINEER SUPPORT TO DEVELOPING THEATERS

Support for force-projection/-contingency operations in undeveloped theaters may or may not involve combined-arms operations but may involve creating a sustainment base where none usually exists. HNS usually is not available; if it is present, it is normally limited. Additionally, the existing infrastructure may not support the needs of CS or CSS units.

Planners must identify general-engineering support requirements and corresponding engineer forces early when planning contingency operations. While forces participating in the force-projection/-contingency operation may be corps level and below, the majority of construction-engineer units are located in operational-level engineer organizations. Tailoring an engineer force from a mixture of multiechelon units will probably be the norm for most contingency operations.

The contingency engineer force may be built around an engineer brigade or a group HQ. Support such as construction contracting, construction Class IV supply, and real estate teams is provided from ENCOM and USACE modular cells to meet theater operational-level engineering requirements. The senior operational-level engineer HQ should be consulted during the task-organization planning because of its familiarity with operational-level engineer units.

Developing or immature theaters present many of the same problems as contingency theaters present. Operational-level engineer units perform general-engineering tasks well before a contingency operation is established. As in a contingency theater, certain elements usually will be required from the operational level in the early stages of an operation. Normally, these elements are assigned to the senior operational-level engineer HQ in theater.

Since the mission, logistics support, and geographic orientation of operational-level engineers differ from corps and divisional engineers, separate command structures are necessary. Until the engineer force grows to sufficient numbers to require separate command structures, the senior engineer HQ in theater, often a maneuver engineer HQ, may be augmented by ENCOM and USACE modular cells and deployable TDA units with responsibilities to plan and coordinate general-engineering support and RPMA.

ENGINEER SUPPORT TO MATURE THEATERS

Engineer support in a mature theater is provided on a mission or area basis according to the theater commander's priorities and construction policy. Engineer units at the operational level provide topographic support to the theater, general-engineering support to all US bases or base clusters in the COMMZ, and contract construction support. Operational-level engineers may be tasked to provide support to the combat area, a HN, or another allied military force.

Based on the theater commander's policies and priorities, the ENCOM commander organizes his forces to best support the Army and other services. The prioritized mission-type engineer-support concept favors less restrictive command relationships; therefore, operational-level engineer units are normally employed in GS or DS of customer units. OPCON or attached relationships may prevent the ENCOM from effectively managing the theater engineer resources.

AREA DAMAGE CONTROL

ADC is the measures taken before, during, and after hostile actions to reduce the probability of damage and minimize its effects. The rear-operations center (ROC) coordinates all engineer support of ADC with the supporting engineer group. It makes maximum use of any HN capabilities and coordinates all HNS through the civil-affairs team. Base and base-cluster commanders develop ADC plans in coordination with the ROC. Bases and base clusters usually have to rely on their own assets; however, engineer units may be used in critical situations, depending on the priority of their other work. Engineer units execute rear-area restoration missions according to the theater-construction priorities. Typical missions include power restoration and production, rubble clearance, removal of downed trees, and repair of critical war-damaged facilities and installations.

Engineer units develop SOPs that integrate engineer support into the ADC team composition. The number and size of the teams depend on the ROC ADC plan. The basic unit is an engineer squad equipped with squad tools, air compressors, dozers, and a crane or wrecker. From the squad, the team can be increased to platoon, company, or battalion size, depending on the situation. Principal missions involve clearing the LOC of rubble and debris, fighting fires and floods, salvaging equipment, rescuing people, and preparing sites for deliberate decontamination operations.

The ROC directly tasks emergency ADC missions to the engineer group. The engineer group prioritizes other ADC missions, to include preattack measures and any damage repair missions. Engineers coordinate with the ROC for military police and EOD support.

Engineer units may also be tasked to perform ADC missions in support of the Air Force. The engineer group receives emergency-repair requests. Emergency-repair requests beyond the capability of the engineer group are forwarded to the engineer brigade. When operating on the air base, the base civil engineer establishes mission priorities. See FMs 90-23, 5-104, and 5-116 for more information on ADC.



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