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Military

CHAPTER 12

Contingency Operations

PERSPECTIVE:

During Operation Restore Hope, engineers built or repaired more than 1,100 kilometers of road. In some parts of the operational area, this effort constituted the center of gravity for humanitarian relief operations. The roads allowed relief organizations to reach outlying settlements and security forces to move to threatened spots. In one case, construction reduced travel time between two key cities from 26 to 12 hours. This effort included constructing two Bailey bridges and repairing a third bridge. One of these Baileys was built by light engineers.
Civic-action projects have always been a part of contingency operations. Such projects have included repairing schools, rehabilitating water wells, and clearing school yards and athletic fields. Work on farm-to-market roads provided the potential for economic growth, given maintaining these roads after the operation ended. However, civic action became one of the areas of mission creep. This is a condition in which certain projects arise that are beyond the scope of the mission statement. Because civic-action projects can be engineer-intensive, the JTF engineer had to limit programs outside the parameters of the mission statement to 50 hours. Included was the requirement to approve all materials used.

INTRODUCTION

Organizing and training for warfighting remains the primary mission of Army engineers. However, engineers can be called on to conduct contingency operations. The engineer commander and staff seek early identification of situations that may require committing engineers in contingency operations to facilitate planning and execution based on METT-T. Engineer force-projection planning includes the possibility that forces committed to contingency operations may become involved with combat operations. Engineers may conduct a wide variety of tasks in support of contingency operations, such as the following:

PRINCIPLES OF CONTINGENCY OPERATIONS

 The doctrinally based principles of war such as mass, maneuver, unity of command, and surprise have withstood the tests of time and experience. However, they do not always apply to the conduct of activities other than warfare. The US forces have developed the following principles of contingency operations, for application, based on the mission and operational environment. Engineer considerations are also provided for each principle of contingency operations.

OBJECTIVE

During contingency operations, as in war, the engineer commander conducts a mission analysis that clearly defines attainable objectives for his unit. The obscure nature of contingency operations may require multiple tasks involved in a single mission. The military objective may be a national political or humanitarian objective. The objective may be limited. Success is usually measured against the stated mission; however, the operation could be expanded.

Engineers¯

UNITY OF EFFORT

 Unity of effort involves extensive coordination, cooperation, and liaison in the pursuit of common interests toward accomplishing the mission. This is done in the face of divergent goals and political interests. Unity of command may not be attainable during contingency operations. The environment may be multinational, interagency, or under another branch of government where a single chain of command does not exist. Therefore, the engineer commander attempts to obtain unity of effort. His primary task is consensus building and understanding each service, agency, and HN force capabilities and limitation as well as legal and political requirements and limitations.

Engineer commanders facilitate unity of effort by understanding and blending the various capabilities of military engineers and civilian contractors to meet mission requirements. Delineating engineer work areas helps avoid duplication of effort. The efficient use of engineers, equipment, construction materials, and repair parts increases force productivity.

LEGITIMACY

Legitimacy is the judgment that authority is being exercised by the right people in the proper way for correct purposes. Legitimacy during contingency operations involve¯

PERSEVERANCE

 The commander plans to achieve his contingency-operation objectives as rapidly as possible. However, many causes of conflict tend to be persistent and are not easily resolved in the near term. Conflict resolution is very time-consuming and may require a long-term commitment of US forces. All elements employed during contingency operations exercise adaptability, patience, determination, and perseverance to continue the mission for as long as required.

Engineers persevere during contingency operations through versatility and agility to meet varied and quickly changing mission requirements. Units supporting maneuver forces with combat-engineering skills may have to construct logistics support facilities and structures on a moment's notice. Construction engineers may be required to breach urban obstacles with heavy equipment. Combat engineers may constantly breach land mines emplaced in the same stretch of road over many days and months. Maintaining supply routes with engineer equipment can become redundant in many contingency-operation scenarios. Engineers demonstrate perseverance and staying power through professionalism and technical and tactical competence in all assigned missions.

RESTRAINT

When the Army is committed to contingency operations, it will normally be constrained and limited by the terms of the mission statement, the terms of reference, and the rules of engagement (ROE), Restrictions on the type of force, weapons used, and ROE are established to prevent escalation of the violence in an activity. The commander refines the restraints and clearly communicates them to subordinate units.

Engineer forces operate fully within the restraints that the commander defines. The engineer staff will clearly establish and write the ROE concerning the use of land mines, demolitions, and protective emplacements. Constraints on the use of HN engineer equipment, laborers, and construction materials will also be identified.

SECURITY

All contingency operations contain some degree of risk; therefore commanders must secure their forces, regardless of mission. The presence of US forces will bring about a wide range of actions and reactions. Commanders must take appropriate measures to ensure that hostile factions, including terrorists and criminals, do not acquire an unexpected advantage. Seemingly benign situations may have elements that place soldiers at risk. A contingency-operation threat is not always easy to recognize. Mission restraints and ROE may limit response options. Friendly force dispersion, diverse activities, and nontraditional contingency-operations tasks make security for the force and the individual soldier difficult.

Engineers enhance contingency-operation security by understanding all ROE and mission constraints, securing their own forces at work sites and in base-camp locations, and providing force-protection construction support to the corps, such as building protective structures, digging emplacements, and emplacing barriers and barricades. Contingency-operations security also includes protecting the engineers through safe operation of their tools and equipment and by keeping the engineers safe and healthy.

ENGINEER SUPPORT TO CONTINGENCY OPERATIONS

Engineer support is fully integrated with the contingency-operations planning processes. Versatile engineers provide unique personnel and equipment capabilities that can effectively support complex and sensitive situations in any contingency operation. All contingency operations relate directly to wartime corps engineer missions and tasks. In many cases, the only difference between a wartime and an engineer contingency operation is the threat level. The basic engineer tasks remain the same in both environments. FM 5-114 details engineers support to various contingency operations.

ARMS CONTROL

Arms control focuses on promoting strategic military stability. It encompasses any plan, arrangement, or process controlling the numbers, types, and performance characteristics of weapons, C2, logistics-support, and intelligence-gathering systems. Engineers may support arms-control operations by providing topographic and imagery products used to verify treaty compliance and by constructing logistics-support facilities involved with the arms-control process.

ATTACKS AND RAIDS

US forces conduct attacks and raids for specific purposes other than gaining or holding terrain. US forces conduct them to¯

COMBATING TERRORISM

 Combating terrorism has two major components: antiterrorism (defensive) and counterterrorism (offensive). US forces combat terrorism mainly through antiterrorism, which include those active and passive measures taken to minimize vulnerabilities to terrorist attack. Antiterrorism is a form of force protection, which makes it the responsibility of all units and personnel. Counterterrorism is the full range of offensive operations against terrorists or those who support terrorists.

Engineers may become targets for terrorists because of how and where they perform their missions, especially construction projects and other wide-area missions. Equipment parks and supply yards are large and difficult to defend. Soldiers' operating equipment or hauling materials are vulnerable to ambush by fire, mines, and booby traps. In support of antiterrorism, engineer leaders¯

PERSPECTIVE:
In the early morning hours of 24 August 1992, Hurricane Andrew slammed into the southern tip of Florida. The eye of the hurricane passed directly over Homestead Air Force Base and the surrounding communities of Homestead and Florida City with an estimated wind speed of over 160 miles per hour (mph)... Late on 27 August 1992, the XVIII Airborne Corps was alerted and directed to send a logistical task force to aid in the relief operations. The 20th Engineer Brigade was directed to begin deployment of forces and have an airborne engineer battalion on the ground within 24 hours...During the time frame to deploy all military engineers, those units on the ground were busy with a varied amount of work. After the area's main roads were opened, debris operations became a lower priority mission. Clearing areas for establishing disaster-assistance centers (DACs), life-support centers (LSCs), mobile kitchen trailer (MKT) feeding sites and removing associated trash and refuse from those areas became priority tasks. Furthermore, clearing debris from schools grew in importance when local authorities decided to reopen them on 14 September 1992.

DISASTER RELIEF

 US forces participate in disaster-relief operations to promote human welfare and to quickly reduce the loss of life, pain and suffering, and destruction of property as a result of a natural or man-made disaster. These operations may be a combination of joint, multinational, or interagency support. US forces continually coordinate and cooperate with local, state, federal, and nongovernmental agencies for timely response in the disaster area. Under the Federal Response Plan (FRP), USACE is the leading federal agency for planning and executing Emergency Support Function (ESF) #3. Engineer units deployed for and available to support state and local governments under the FRP will receive mission assignments for ESF #3 support from the supported USACE commander resulting from coordination between the JTF engineer and the USACE commander on the ground. See FM 100-19 for further details.

Engineers provide personnel and equipment capabilities that are extremely useful during disaster-relief operations in the following areas:

HUMANITARIAN ASSISTANCE

 US forces have the ability to respond rapidly to emergencies that are caused by natural or man-made disasters or other conditions such as human pain, disease, famine, or privation in specific countries or regions. The State Department approves most humanitarian assistance operations, and Congress funds them through specific appropriations. Commanders coordinate their efforts through the DOD, the US Agency for International Development (USAID), and the US ambassador. US forces¯

NATION ASSISTANCE

 Nation assistance includes the civil and military-assistance actions (other than humanitarian assistance) that US forces render to a nation within that nation during war, conflict, and peace. Nation assistance supports the HN's efforts to promote development, ideally by using its own resources. The goals of nation assistance are to¯

SUPPORT TO AN INSURGENCY AND A COUNTERINSURGENCY

 At the direction of the National Command Authority (NCA), US forces may assist either insurgent movements or the HN government opposing an insurgency. In both cases, the corps predominately supports political and economical objectives. Through special operating forces (SOFs), US forces covertly support insurgencies that oppose repressive regimes that work against US interests. US forces provide overt support to a HN's counterinsurgency operations through logistics and training support in concert with the US ambassador's country plan.

Engineer support to insurgency forces is limited to providing topographic products and construction of SOF operating bases located outside the AO. Engineer missions for counterinsurgency operations are similar to those for humanitarian and nation assistance: water supply and sanitation improvements; road, airfield, and port construction; and multinational training.

NONCOMBATANT-EVACUATION OPERATIONS

NEOs are conducted to evacuate threatened US and authorized HN or third-country citizens from locations in a foreign nation or unsafe haven. NEOs involve swift, temporary occupancy of an objective. They end with a preplanned withdrawal. If the use of force is involved, the minimum amount of force to accomplish the mission will be used. A NEO is normally conducted as a joint operation by US forces; sometimes it involves multinational forces. Army Regulation (AR) 525-12 outlines responsibilities, policies, and procedures for planning and conducting a NEO.

Engineers that support a NEO generally operate as part of a joint force and may conduct a wide variety of tasks, such as¯

PEACE OPERATIONS

 Peace operations encompass three types of activities: support to diplomacy, peacekeeping operations, and peace-enforcement operations (PEOs).

Support to Diplomacy

Military support to diplomacy has become increasingly important in furthering US interests abroad. Its components include peacemaking, peace building, and preventive diplomacy. See FM 100-23 for further details.

Engineer involvement in support to diplomacy may include shows of force, preventive deployments, military-to-military relations, security-assistance programs, construction projects, and repairing utilities and roads.

Peacekeeping Operations

A PKO supports diplomatic efforts to establish or maintain peace in areas of potential or actual conflict. They are undertaken by the consent of all belligerents. US PKO forces monitor and facilitate implementing an existing truce or cease-fire and support diplomatic efforts to reach a long-term political settlement. Strict appearance of neutrality, adequate means of self-protection, and the availability of timely and effective support are critical. US forces may be tasked to conduct a PKO over a considerable time period, under multinational control, such as the UN, or under a unilateral peacekeeping umbrella.

Engineers participate in PKOs by constructing and maintaining roads, airfields, landing zones, ports, pipelines, and other associated missions such as land mine detection and removal.

Peace-Enforcement Operations

PEOs are military intervention operations that support diplomatic efforts to restore peace or to establish conditions for conducting PKOs. PEOs¯

RESCUE-AND-RECOVERY OPERATIONS

 Rescue-and-recovery operations involve locating, identifying, and extracting friendly, hostile, and/or neutral personnel, sensitive equipment, and/or items critical to US national security. Rescue-and-recovery operations may be opposed by hostile forces and require extensive planning and rehearsals to achieve precise execution. US forces normally conduct rescue-and-recovery operations in an overt nature, similar to offensive operations.

Engineer support of rescue-and-recovery operations is focused on providing required topographic products and constructing rehearsal areas and facilities. Specialized engineer skills, such as demolition, may be required.

DEMONSTRATIONS AND SHOWS OF FORCE

Demonstrations and shows of force portrayto potential adversaries the American resolve in a situation vital to our national interests. They can take the form of multinational training exercises, rehearsals, forward staging of units, or the buildup of forces in the AO. US involvement in a show of force may range in size and scope from a publicized heightened state of alert at the home station to completing an unopposed force-projection entry into the AO. The possibility of a show of force deteriorating into combat operations must be planned for. Political concerns dominate a show of force.

Engineer support to demonstrations and shows of force will normally be a joint and multinational effort. Engineer tasks are very similar to those described in Chapter 3. Overt use of engineers during shows of force may aid in the political intent of the operation.

SUPPORT TO CIVIL AUTHORITIES

These operations provide temporary support to domestic civil authorities when permitted by law. They are normally taken when an emergency overwhelms the capabilities of civil authorities. The type of support that the corps provides is divided into four categories: disaster relief, environmental assistance, community assistance, and law-enforcement support.

Engineers may be called on to support civil authorities in various missions such as fighting forest fires, removing snow, removing hazardous wastes, controlling riots, and constructing emergency bridges and airfields. FM 100-19 details how engineers support civil authorities.

SUPPORT TO COUNTERDRUG OPERATIONS

Because of US code restrictions, US forces do not normally participate in domestic counterdrug operations. National guard units may participate in counterdrug operations while under state control. US forces may become involved in cooperating with foreign governments to interdict the flow of illegal drugs at the source, in transit, and during distribution. US support of foreign counterdrug operations is normally coordinated by the CINC of the region, his special operations command, and country military assistance groups. US forces will normally supervise the preparation, deployment, and possible sustainment of small specialized units to meet CINC or special operations forces shortfalls.

Engineers supporting domestic counterdrug operations perform missions focused on supporting local law-enforcement agencies. Engineers are sensitive to the legal aspects of support to civilian authorities and abide by the Posse Comitatus Act. They are also aware of the capabilities of the threat, primarily heavily armed narcotics traffickers. Typical support tasks include¯

ENGINEER CONSIDERATIONS FOR CONTINGENCY OPERATIONS

Contingency operations are joint, multiagency, and multinational efforts. Effective engineer liaison with all involved military units and civilian agencies is critical to successful contingency operations. The engineer commander tailors engineer support based on contingency-operations requirements and may be radically different than for supporting combat operations. The following paragraphs highlight key engineer contingency-operations considerations:

ENGINEER ASSESSMENT

An early, on-the-ground assessment by engineers is absolutely critical to tailor properly and to support logistically the follow-on engineer contingency-operations force. Results of this assessment are quickly passed to deployment planners to ensure that an adequate engineer support force arrives in the AO in a timely manner. The failure to provide these engineers may cause inadequate troop bed down, sanitation, and force protection to the deployed force. This early, on-the-ground engineer assessment identifies the¯

JOINT ENGINEER C2

 Because of the joint, multiagency, and multinational nature of contingency opertations, how to command and control the various engineers is a key consideration. At the joint and multinational staffing levels, the engineer staff should be placed under the Operations Directorate (J3) or as a separate staff engineer section. Engineers should avoid being placed under the auspices of the joint or multinational Logistics Directorate (J4). Lessons learned from continuing contingency-operations deployments show that when staff engineers are placed under the J4, they are tied up supporting logistics forces in theater, at the expense of maneuver and other deployed units. A separate engineer HQ should be identified to command and control the varied, critical, and constrained contingency-operations engineer support.

TOPOGRAPHIC SUPPORT

By their nature, contingency operations are normally conducted in areas of the US and the rest of the world that have limited up-to-date topographic coverage from the DMA and US Geological Survey (USGS) and other civilian, allied, and HN sources. When providing topographic support to a JTF or ARFOR contingency operation, the engineer must consider¯

CONSTRUCTION SUPPORT

 Contingency operations are normally conducted after an area's infrastructure has been destroyed because of man-made or natural disasters or conflicts between warring factions. Contingency operations require engineers to establish some type of bare-base infrastructure that supports deployed forces or displaced civilians with minimal life-support and a protected, healthy, and safe environment. In a contingency-operation atmosphere¯

COUNTERMINE OPERATIONS

 Estimates indicate that there are more than 100 million uncleared land mines spread throughout 62 countries. This equates to about one land mine for every 50 people on our planet. Land mines¯

PERSPECTIVE:
Army engineers built six 500-man base camps in Somalia during Operation Restore Hope. Facilities, in general, were both temporary and permanent. One of the considerations was providing force-sustainment facilities for follow-on UN peacekeeping forces in addition to current demands. This included drilling wells, building showers and latrines, contracting for laundry services, and so forth. However, initial units deployed with minimal Class IV and little engineer equipment due to aircraft limitations. In addition, there was limited Class IV material on pre-positioned ships. This limited the timely construction of support facilities and created a force-protection problem due to inadequate obstacle materials.

FORCE PROTECTION

 Commanders and staff planners must not neglect force protection. The HN may provide security forces, US forces (usually military police or infantry) may augment security forces, or a combination of the two may occur. If the later occurs, all of the involved units and agencies will have to closely coordinate their mission plans. Contingency opertions normally indicate a low threat level; however, that threat is a significant concern to deployed forces. Hostile elements, with the initiative and in their own environment, can gain a great deal with minimal effort.

Engineer units on construction missions could fail due to a loss of essential equipment or personnel casualties. Therefore, physical and personnel security must be considered at every level of planning. See FM 5-114, Appendix A, for a detailed discussion on force-protection measures.

Engineers have unique equipment and personnel capabilities that can be used to support deployed force-protection efforts during contingency operations. Engineers construct protective facilities, bunkers, emplacements, vehicle barriers, fences, and other structures needed to protect the force. When providing force-protection support to a corps's JTF or ARFOR's contingency operation, engineers must consider¯



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