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Military

CHAPTER 1

Challenges in Army and
Engineer Operations

THE NATURE OF WAR

PERSPECTIVE:

"...it is certain that in future wars, even more than in the past, endeavors will be made by every possible means to prevent or delay the march of the enemy's troops by throwing obstacles in the way and by cutting such lines of communications as they might use.
Conversely, in order to reach an objective, it will be necessary to overcome or destroy obstructions to the movements of troops and re-establish the continuity of highways and railroads in the most rapid and practical manner."
Douglas MacArthur
 The United States (US) Army, facing a wide range of potential enemies, is prepared to fight under diverse conditions, climate, and intensity with its sister services and its allies. The range of military operations includes the diverse environments of peacetime, conflict, and war, which are not precise, clearly defined, or exclusive of themselves. Figure 1-1 shows the relationships between peace, conflict, and war.

Conflict, in particular, describes a middle ground that is neither peace nor war. In its lower reaches, conflict includes situations that are generally peaceful, occasionally punctuated by political violence. At its upper end, conflict differs very little from war except in its combination of political and military means. Thus, little is gained by asking if a particular situation is at peace, in conflict, or at war; it should be evaluated on its specific characteristics. The segments of the political-military environments are only central tendencies.

Peacetime operations are those activities that influence the actions that routinely occur between nations. Examples would be engineers involved in humanitarian missions and nation assistance. Peacemaking and peacekeeping operations (PKOs) often involve conflict. Common engineer missions could include route clearance, countermine operations, and force protection. Peacetime operations and conflict are classified as contingency opertions. During contingency operations, the Army faces an environment where it is unsuitable to employ the full range of its military might. Political and economic actions will be as important as military force in achieving the desired objective.

War involves the use of force in combat operations against an enemy. In high-intensity and midintensity war, the Army faces large, rapidly maneuvering formations operating on battlefields characterized by sophisticated weapons, high consumption rates, and extended time and distance. Advanced technology provides the capacity to acquire, track, classify, and attack targets at ranges that were unattainable in past conflicts. Integrating automated communications and information systems enhances the command and control (C2) structure's ability to maneuver large forces rapidly. This can occur even if the forces are strained by combat, which mixes forces in nonlinear battles.

World instability can cause the US to react to unfavorable situations with little or no warning. The Army, with its quick reaction forces, must respond rapidly and worldwide in contingency operations through the use or display of force and determination. The danger in a contingency operation is that it could escalate into combat, requiring the Army to either reinforce or extract contingency forces quickly. Also, adding nuclear, biological, chemical (NBC) weapons to the already large array of highly lethal weapons challenges the Army to protect the force, maintain freedom of maneuver, and sustain operations.

THE THREAT

No region of the world is oblivious to potential conflicts, nor can any region maintain complete security, safety, and international equilibrium. Consequently, determining which region will be the next likely area for possible deployment of US forces is difficult. While the threat of global superpower confrontation has been abated, regional power vacuums caused by the breakup of the former Soviet Union are being filled by several contenders. The threats that the US faces are the uncertainty and the unknown, which indicate a period of increased global insecurity.

GENERAL SITUATION

As we enter the 21st century, the international distribution of power and influence in world affairs will be more dispersed than at any time since World War II. The US will remain the leading world power, exceeding other nations in its potential for projecting economic, military, diplomatic, and cultural influence around the globe. While no single nation will radically increase its power compared to the US, many nations will significantly improve their economic and military powers to compete with the US and posture for greater international influence.

Such realignments will result in a new world order characterized by diverse political and military powers and increased economic, and possibly, political interdependence. Transnational and subnational groups, promoting ethnic, religious, economic, cultural, criminal, and other special interests, will become important international actors. Supranational institutions, such as the European community (EC) and large trading blocs in Asia, North America, and the Middle East, can be expected to emerge as major economic and political entities.

The fall of the former Soviet Union has dynamically changed the political world order. However, in today's world, crises and regional wars will continue to challenge vital interest to the US. World peace could again be threatened if any nation or coalition seeks to dominate over the greater concentrations of industrial, organizational, technological, and human resources within their area of influence.

FOREIGN MILITARY TRENDS

The current global trend is for a nation's military force to become quantitatively smaller but technologically and qualitatively better. Many forces in the world will not become as capable as those of the most technologically advanced nations. However, many nations will increase qualitatively as technology becomes more affordable and available. How well these nations can integrate advanced weapons systems and technology into their armed forces remains to be seen. Yet, the global arms market is creating an environment where even the lesser-developed countries may acquire advanced weapons systems, providing them with high-tech leverage over other regional areas. National economic policies will cause most nations to continue to reduce their overall arms holdings and the size of their armed forces to keep down costs while improving their capabilities.

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ARMY OPERATIONS DOCTRINE AND ITS FOUNDATION

Army operations doctrine in FM 100-5 is the capstone doctrine that describes how the Army fights. Engineers must master it, since it forms the basis for engineer doctrine contained in this manual. The rest of this chapter covers the fundamentals of Army

operations doctrine as it applies to engineers.

The foundations for Army operations doctrine provide general guidance for the conduct of war. The Army recognizes that the principles of war and the tenets of Army operations are the key operating requirements for success on the battlefield. Engineer operations assist the commander in accomplishing these requirements. The foundations of Army operations doctrine are the principles of war, tenets of Army operations, and dynamics of combat power.

PRINCIPLES OF WAR

The nine principles of war provide the basic framework for the conduct of war at strategic, operational, and tactical levels. The principles are the continuing foundation of Army doctrine. Today's force-projection engineers recognize the following principles of war:

Objective

Direct every military mission toward a clearly defined, decisive, and attainable objective.

Commanders direct the use of available combat power toward clearly defined, attainable, and decisive goals. Engineers analyze how best to support a definable objective and develop courses of action (COAs) to achieve these goals during war and contingency operations. Force commanders then establish the tasks and priorities for all engineer activities.

Offensive

Seize, retain, and exploit the initiative.

Offensive action is the most effective and decisive way to attain a clearly defined common objective. Engineers conduct mobility operations to help the force seize and hold the initiative while maintaining freedom of action and achieving decisive results. Maneuver units and engineers adopt the defense only as a temporary expedient and seek every opportunity to seize the initiative. An offensive spirit must be inherent when conducting all engineer defensive operations.

Mass

Mass the effects of overwhelming combat power at the decisive place and time.

Engineers enable units to concentrate rapidly over clear routes and reduce enemy obstacles without loss of momentum. Engineer forces weight the main effort. Supporting efforts receive remaining engineer support after the main effort is satisfied. Thus, engineer units concentrate in key areas. As the main effort shifts, the engineer force posture enables engineers to shift with it. Because there are not enough engineers to meet all requirements, commanders must minimize their diversion from all but the most essential tasks. Engineer operations require precise integration and synchronization to achieve the desired effects.

Economy of Force

Employ all combat power available in the most effective way possible; allocate essential combat power to secondary efforts.

Engineer units must be judiciously employed and distributed on the battlefield. No engineer unit should be left without purpose. Allocating engineers for missions such as limited attacks, defense, delays, deception, or even retrograde operations is measured to achieve mass elsewhere at the decisive point and time on the battlefield.

Maneuver

Place the enemy in a position of disadvantage through the flexible application of combat power.

Effective force commanders and their engineers thoroughly understand the enemy and its weaknesses. Viable schemes of maneuver consider the capabilities of engineers to alter terrain, reduce enemy obstacles, hinder enemy breaching of friendly obstacles, and protect the force from enemy firepower. Two examples of how engineers enhance maneuver and contribute in destroying the enemy are¯

Unity of Command

 For every objective, seek unity of command and unity of effort.

Engineers at all levels ensure that their units are fully integrated into the combined-arms team. Army engineers also work with those of the other services and agencies to ensure that the total engineer effort brings their full weight to bear in support of the operation.

Security

Never permit the enemy to acquire unexpected advantage.

Engineers are the experts in camouflage, survivability, and countermobility. They support force protection for friendly forces while hindering the intelligence collection efforts of the enemy. Protection¯a dynamic of combat power¯enhances the fighting potential of a force so that the commander can apply it at the decisive time and place. Engineers provide a major role in protecting the force. Constructing hasty and deliberate positions for combat, combat support (CS), and combat service support (CSS) and contributing to the deception plan are two key examples of how engineers enhance security measures.

Surprise

Strike the enemy at a time or a place or in a manner for which it is unprepared.

Engineer mobility and countermobility operations are designed specifically for surprise. Engineers plan and execute obstacles to disrupt the enemy's tempo and freedom of maneuver. Air- and artillery-delivered scatterable mines (SCATMINEs) extend this effect into the enemy's rear area. Engineers provide the mobility to strike the enemy rapidly before it can react. Using engineers in deception operations can be extremely effective due to the visible nature of engineer operations.

Simplicity

Prepare clear, uncomplicated plans and concise orders to ensure thorough understanding.

Simplicity contributes to successful operations. Clear and simple plans minimize confusion and maximize understanding. Simple plans are especially useful when leaders and soldiers are tired from extended operations. These plans enhance a leader's understanding and permit branches and sequences to be understood. Engineer commanders and planners maintain simplicity by ensuring that task organizations and areas of responsibilities allow for smooth transitions and minimal movement. Units are provided clear, concise mission taskings with maximum opportunity for decentralize planning and execution.

TENETS OF ARMY OPERATIONS DOCTRINE

The Army applies combat power by fighting according to the five basic tenets of Army operations doctrine: initiative, agility, depth, synchronization, and versatility.

Initiative

Initiative seeks to set or change the terms of battle by taking action. It requires an offensive spirit, regardless of the nature of the ongoing operation. Initiative requires decentralizing decision authority at the lowest practicable level. Subordinates at all levels understand the commander's intent and the assumptions on which he bases it. They act independently within the framework of this intent. Engineers must be very adept for their support to be timely. Their tasks are often time-consuming and frequently resource-intensive. Engineers understand the commander's intent, anticipate the requirements for a mission, and initiate preparatory actions before their need is often perceived, in detail, at higher echelons.

Agility

Agility is the ability of friendly forces to act faster than enemy forces. It permits a friendly force to seize and hold the initiative. Commanders risk commitment without complete information. Engineers are task-organized to ensure rapid response to changing requirements. They shift support for the main effort with minimum delay and with the least possible reconfiguration and coordination.

Depth

Depth is the extension of operations in space, time, and resources. Engineers provide support throughout the entire TO. In the offense, they add depth to the friendly forces' attack by rapidly reducing the enemy's obstacle systems and fortifications to maintain a high rate of advance. In the defense, engineers add depth to the battlefield by altering the terrain, thereby increasing the time and cost of operations to the enemy. In all operations, engineers keep open the lines of communication (LOC) that make the shifting of forces and the forward movement of reserves and other resources possible.

Synchronization

Synchronization brings time, space, and purpose together to produce the maximum combat power at the decisive point. Battles involve many elements that must mesh together as a whole. Engineer actions often require significant lead time for successful integration with the rest of the combined-arms team. Therefore, engineers synchronize their activities carefully so their effects are felt at the decisive time and place and in the desired manner.

Versatility

Versatility is the ability of units to meet diverse mission requirements. Engineers must be able to shift focus, tailor forces, and move from one role to another rapidly and efficiently. Their units must be able to transfer quickly their combat-engineer skills to other tasks, such as repairing and constructing infrastructures or restoring utilities. Versatility is the ability to perform in many roles and environments during war and contingency operations. Technical and tactical competence is required for the engineer commander to be versatile. Engineers must be prepared to conduct multiple operations in multiple-operational environments at the same time.

DYNAMICS OF COMBAT POWER

Army operations recognize the dynamics of combat power¯maneuver, firepower, protection, and leadership¯which, by skillful combination at the right place and time, defeat the enemy.

Maneuver

Maneuver depends on mobility to mass forces, attain surprise, reduce vulnerability, exploit success, and preserve freedom of action. Commanders maneuver their forces into positions of advantage over the enemy. As the commander's terrain experts, engineers analyze the terrain to determine maneuver potential, which enhances the maneuver. They swiftly reduce natural and enemy obstacles to maintain freedom to maneuver where desired, not just where the enemy allows.

Engineer units, when organized and equipped to move with other members of the combined-arms team, ensure mobility when and where it is needed. Equally important, engineers deny freedom of maneuver to the enemy by enhancing the inherent obstacle value of terrain.

Firepower

Commanders mass fires on the battlefield by rapidly positioning weapon systems for concentrated fires on lucrative enemy targets. Engineer terrain analysis helps determine the likely avenues of approach (AAs) and select the engagement areas (EAs). Engineer obstacle systems disrupt the integrity of enemy formations, turn them into EAs, and fix the enemy in these areas by prolonging its exposure to fires, thereby increasing its losses. Tactical minefields, emplaced by engineer units, add their destructive effects to massed direct and indirect fires while holding the enemy in EAs. Engineer units with rapid obstacle-emplacement capability respond quickly to changing situations on a dynamic battlefield.

Protection

Protection, which includes cover, concealment, deception, and operations security (OPSEC), makes the force's soldiers, systems, and units difficult to locate and attack. Engineers protect the force by developing fortifications and shelters that enable units not only to survive but also to fight in positions that would otherwise be untenable due to enemy fires. Engineer units, using mobile, rapid digging and construction capabilities, prepare weapons emplacements, vehicle fighting positions, and bunkers. Engineers also assist in camouflage measures and in preparing concealed routes. They work so that the signature they present to the enemy supports the deception plan, which also adds protection.

Leadership

Engineer leaders at all levels ensure that their units are fully integrated into the combined-arms team. Engineers give maneuver commanders options, not otherwise available, that aid them to be bold and daring by minimizing their risks and enhancing the mobility of their forces. Timely engineer advice helps maneuver commanders make critical choices within the enemy's decision cycle. Engineer leaders ensure that their units are well-motivated, well-trained, and well-disciplined to withstand the stress of the battlefield and carry out their missions.

DEEP, CLOSE, AND REAR OPERATIONS

Deep, close, and rear operations require continuous synchronization. Engineers participate at all echelons in the planning and coordination process to ensure that these operations support the overall battle.

DEEP OPERATIONS

Deep operations consist of activities directed against enemy forces not in contact to influence the conditions under which future close operations will take place. Deep operations are often conducted with assets other than ground-maneuver forces. In these cases, engineers provide terrain analysis to aid the commander in the intelligence preparation of the battlefield (IPB). Knowing the impact of terrain on weapons effects, they participate in the target analysis/nomination process to help the commander shape the battlefield. Engineers also provide advice on using interdiction obstacles and tracking their status in the commander's area of interest for future operations. Whenever ground forces conduct deep operations, engineers open and maintain necessary routes and aviation facilities to support the action.

CLOSE OPERATIONS

Close operations consist of activities that support the current fight against enemy forces in contact. At the tactical level, all engineers fighting as part of a committed division are involved in close operations. Only ground forces can dominate the terrain through close operations. Engineer forces are part of a maneuver commander's ability to choose where, when, and against whom to commit assault formations.

REAR OPERATIONS

Rear operations assist in providing freedom of action and continuity of operations, logistics, and battle command. Their primary purposes are to sustain the current close and deep fights and to posture the force for future operations. Rear areas may not be contiguous with forward areas, complicating both protection for rear-area forces and sustainment of forces fighting close operations. Therefore, engineers provide hardened shelters and protective obstacles and assist in camouflage measures. A major task is to acquire, build, and maintain the facilities and transportation networks for LOC that are critical to rear operations. Engineers may also be required to support area damage control (ADC).

THE ENGINEER FOCUS

Engineer commanders focus on the objective during war and contingency operations. In war, engineers focus on¯

THE ROLES OF ENGINEERS

 The changing nature of war and Army operations doctrine pose great challenges. Engineer integration into staff planning requires increased emphasis, since synchronizing the battle is increasingly complex. Engineer C2 must function rapidly to be responsive on a dynamic battlefield. A terrain analysis and its products assist in faster planning. Requirements for fortifications and protective shelters increase. Obstacle systems retain their importance. Most important, obstacle breaching and rapid gap crossing have greater emphasis than in the past.

The five primary engineer functions in the TO are mobility, countermobility, survivability, general engineering, and topographic engineering. Figure 1-2 shows the types of engineer missions by battlefield function.

MOBILITY

Mobility enables the force commander to maneuver tactical units into advantageous positions over the enemy. In the attack, engineers aggressively execute drills to breach enemy obstacles and assault and destroy enemy fortifications. The commander designates routes for ground forces, well in advance of their intended use, so that engineer units can upgrade the routes, as necessary, and keep them open or repaired. Engineers also prepare field sites that the Army and Air Force aviation assets use to support an operation. (See FMs 5-101, 90-13, and 90-13-1 for more information on techniques and procedures for mobility.)

COUNTERMOBILITY

Countermobility augments natural terrain with obstacle systems according to the commander's concept. This adds depth to the battle in space and time by attacking the enemy's ability to maneuver its forces. With its movement disrupted, turned, fixed, or blocked, the enemy is vulnerable to our forces. Engineers advise the commander on the best means to reinforce the terrain and emplace obstacles that support his plan. (See FMs 5-102, 20-32, and 90-7 for more information on tactics and techniques for countermobility.)

SURVIVABILITY

Survivability provides concealment and protective shelter from the effects of enemy weapons. Engineers¯

GENERAL ENGINEERING

 General engineering helps establish and maintain the infrastructure necessary for sustaining military operations in theater. General-engineering tasks¯

PERSPECTIVE:
On the second day of the Battle of Gettysburg, the Union commander, General George Meade, sent his engineer, Gouvernor Warren, to examine his left flank. Both Meade and Warren were concerned about that part of the Union lines because of Confederate activity. Upon arriving on a small elevation called Little Round Top, Warren discovered that the hill was unoccupied except for a few signal men. In the distance, he could see advancing Confederate infantry. He immediately sent messengers to nearby commanders and urged them to move quickly to fortify the hill. Ultimately, Vincent's brigade of the V Corps moved up. The Union forces arrived only minutes before the Confederate troops. In a desperate battle, which raged for several hours, Union infantry and artillery successfully defended the position against repeated Confederate charges. Had the Confederates taken Little Round Top, they could have turned the Union flank and rolled up the Union lines. The resulting disaster could have altered the outcome of the Civil War.

TOPOGRAPHIC ENGINEERING

 Topographic engineering provides commanders with information about the terrain. Terrain information allows a commander to visualize the battlefield environment better and to position forces. All engineers are terrain analysts and assist others to use the ground effectively.

In particular, they recommend avenues and routes, obstacle locations, EAs, unit positions, and deep-operation targets. Topographic engineer units use digital terrain data to develop a detailed terrain analysis. (See FM 5-105 for more information on topographic-engineering techniques and procedures.)

ENGINEERS AND TECHNOLOGY

Technology of the 21st century will demand a 21st-century engineer soldier equal to the sophisticated systems of the future. Only intelligent, physically fit, highly motivated, educated, and well-trained engineers can leverage technology to its full potential. Electronic connectivity between and among all echelons in the Army will result in such speed and precision in communications that operational- and tactical-situation awareness and agility will far exceed that of today's forces. By 2010, the battlefield will be digitized. Incorporating digital technology will give commanders unprecedented capabilities to gather and share tactical information. Engineers will provide three-dimensional virtual terrain products of the battle space for all forces.

Future digitized engineer units will be able to quickly task-organize limited engineer systems, such as the following, to support the commander:



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