This appendix brings into focus the need to plan for movement by vehicle and for movement by foot so that the probability of detection is minimized. Stealth is one of the primary factors in the survivability of the ADA sensor sections.
Night operations depend upon direction, control, and surprise for success. Direction in the attack facilitates a coordinated effort to maximize combat potential. Control ensures that units are mutually supporting and that the proper NAIs are observed. Surprise, through speed and secrecy, is the key to minimizing the enemy's ability to react or to focus combat power against the sensor section. The ability to successfully conduct these operations places emphasis on small unit skills to navigate and move silently through dense terrain.
Navigation at night is different from daylight
navigation. Shapes and sizes are distorted and colors
fade. However, towns and radio towers may be easier
to recognize. Night navigation, like day navigation,
uses terrain association and or dead reckoning. Terrain
association uses a general direction of travel coupled
with the recognition of prominent map and ground
features. Dead reckoning uses a compass direction and
specific distances or legs. The basic requirement while
moving at night is to remain oriented. Resection helps
determine location while moving. Proficiency in
resection results from a thorough map and terrain analysis.
Map and terrain analysis is critical due to the distance
distortion which occurs at night. Distance is judged
partly by object size, color, depth perception, and other
factors which are degraded at night. As a result, small
objects seem farther away and large objects seem
closer. Bright objects seem closer than dull ones.
Forests or groves of trees seen from a distance may
appear to be hills in dim light.
When a sensor section enters a new area, the section chief must orient the map to the terrain to get the "lay of the land": local drainage and relief, dominant terrain features, how the terrain looks from other features, and most importantly, how the area looks at night. To know the area, the section chief must walk it in all directions, both day and night.
During a reconnaissance, the sensor section chief compares the terrain with the mental images developed during map analysis. This confirmation and modification of the initial analysis fixes the land patterns and important features in memory.
METT-T is the criterion used to determine the route used for night movement. Since more than one route may satisfy the requirements for METT-T, select the one that offers ease of navigation. Night travel is strenuous, often done when soldiers are tired, adding to physical and psychological stress. Ease of navigation contributes both to maintaining direction and control. The selected route is subjected to further analysis using the factors of observation and fields of fire, cover and concealment, obstacles, key terrain, and avenues of approach (OCOKA). METT-T may make one of these factors more critical, such as terrain, cover, or avenues of approach. As the route is analyzed, it is divided into segments or legs. Legs represent a way to maintain control. Each leg begins and ends either with a change in direction or a prominent terrain feature. The location where the leg begins is a checkpoint. Checkpoints provide a sequential series of guides to use for orientation and control. As before, each leg is analyzed using OCOKA. OCOKA helps determine probable hasty ambush sites, likely areas the enemy may use for movement, and where observation may improve.
An additional consideration is given to identifying features on the far side of each checkpoint. The features will act as catchpoints in case checkpoints are missed. The catchpoint provides a quick and easy method to reorient movement. Linear features such as a river, road, or ridge are the best features to use as catchpoints. Every effort is made to conduct a reconnaissance of the route before moving the section. The ideal is both a day and night reconnaissance. As the reconnaissance is conducted, aids to orientation are confirmed, adjusted, or added. Terrain features (hills, cliffs, rivers, ridges, and draws) and man-made features (towers, buildings, bridges, and roads) are all aids to navigation. The best navigational aid, however, is a guide who knows the area. A final ingredient is the reorientation plan. Reorientation is planned throughout the movement: checkpoints, catchpoints, and position locators are aids. Nevertheless, sensor sections may get lost. Therefore, section chiefs must plan on how to recover, reorient, and complete the mission. Plan for this contingency during the reconnaissance. Add extra checkpoints, if necessary. Look for distant terrain features to use for resection. Plan to resection off indirect fire on known locations. By planning on how to react if the section becomes lost, the probability is diminished.
When operating without the radar (not yet emplaced/operational) often the sensor section will leave their vehicle in a location which is easy to camouflage. This means that the section can exercise an increased stealth posture by moving on foot. This will increase their probability of keeping their position and movement undetected by the enemy.
Night movement on foot requires the use of different muscles than day movement. Therefore, to move with stealth at night requires practice. Walking at night places more strain and exertion on the muscles of the thighs and buttocks as opposed to the calf muscles used for daylight travel. Night movement requires that these muscles become accustomed to taking short, careful steps. The object is to make cross-terrain travel as natural as walking along a sidewalk. Night walking proficiency is gained through practice. Begin by looking ahead, then slowly lift the right foot approximately knee high, and balancing on the left foot, ease the right foot forward to feel for twigs and trip wires. Keep the toes pointed downward. The lead foot should touch the ground about six inches to the front. As the toes come to rest, the soldier feels for the ground with the outside of the toe of the boot. Then he settles the foot on the ground. As this step is taken, the boot is used to feel for twigs and loose rocks. Confident of solid, quiet footing, the soldier slowly moves his weight forward, hesitates, then begins lifting his left foot (see the following illustration). The process is repeated with the left foot. This method of balanced, smooth walking at night reduces chances of tripping over roots and rocks and reduces noise. Soldiers conditioned to move at night, using the larger muscle groups of the leg, are able to travel farther with less fatigue. Scanning the horizon helps the soldier keep his balance and maintain proper orientation. It allows him to detect light, contrast, and motion, which may indicate an enemy ambush.
Stalking is best described as night walking in a crouch; but, very slowly. The soldier is usually watching the enemy, stalking him by eyesight. When close to the enemy, squinting helps conceal light reflected by the eyes. Breathe slowly and through the nose. If the enemy looks in the direction of the stalker, the stalker freezes, balanced or not. Movement should take advantage of the background to blend with shadows and prevent glare or contrast. Movement is best conducted during distractions such as gusts of wind, vehicles moving, loud talking, or nearby weapons fire.
All crawling techniques feel awkward at first. Practice increases expertise. Crawling is more comfortable when pads are used on the knees and elbows; however, ensure that the binders or tapes holding the pads on do not cut off blood circulation. The fastest crawl uses the single-side, hand-and-foot method. Movement is accomplished by pressing the right or left hand and foot against the ground and either pushing or pulling forward. This method sacrifices noise discipline and is the least useful in the final phase of stalking. A second method involves using the opposite hand and foot. This is done by pressing down with an arm and a foot on the opposite side and resting on one hip. In this way, the body is pulled forward with the left hand and right foot. As the soldier reaches forward again he is resting on his left hip. He then pulls his body forward using the right hand and left foot, and rests on his right hip. This method is slower and quieter than the first method. The slowest and quietest technique uses the elbows and toes of the boots. It is executed by lifting the body up on elbows and toes of the boots, slowly pushing the body forward, resting, and repeating the process. Each movement is measured in inches. The position of the head is important while crawling. Before moving, always look to the front for obstructions and or enemy activity. Lift the head slowly off of the ground, look to the front, from left to right, and low to high. Squint with the eyelids to prevent undue light reflection off the eyes. Then lower the head to the ground, facing either to the left or right. Another precaution before moving is to feel to the front for obstructions such as roots that may snag clothing and twigs and rocks that may make noise. Remove or go around them.
The chief factor which gives away a position is the lack of light and noise discipline. To overcome this shortfall, the section must practice light and noise discipline and the section chief must check. Communications at night calls for the section chief to use different methods than during daylight. For instance, arm-and-hand signals used during the day may not be visible during darkness. Signals are used to pass information, identify locations, control formations, or initiate activity. The key to tactical communications is simplicity, understanding, and practice. Signals should be an integral part of the unit SOP. Signals should be made as simple as possible to avoid confusion. The most common signals relate to the senses: hearing, feeling, and seeing. Audio signals include radio, wire telephones, messengers, and the grating or clicking of objects together. Control at night involves some verbal communications, but do not talk in a natural tone of voice--whisper instead. To do this, take a normal breath, exhale half of it, and then whisper into the other person's ear using the remainder of the breath. The radio and telephone may not be suitable at night. If either is used, take certain precautions. Noise travels farther at night. So will the static of the radio, the passing of messages, and the ringing of the telephone. These are violations of noise discipline. They can be reduced by planned signals or clicks. Headphones also reduce the amount of noise by both devices. Rocks and other objects may be used to transmit audible signals. Rocks may be tapped or scraped together; they can be scraped against a tree or rifle stock to pass a message. These signals are rehearsed. There is a signal and a reply to indicate the signal was received. Other audible signals are whistles, bells, sirens, clackers or "crickets," and horns. The device or method chosen depends on simplicity and security. Visual signals are an alternative to audio signals. These signals may be active or passive and include a wide range of alternatives. The key to visual signals is to ensure they are noticed and identifiable. Some passive signals are--
- Sticks indicating a direction.
- Light paint.
- Tape.
- Rock formations.
- Markings in the ground.
- Powder.
- Luminous tape.
Conversely, active signals include--
- Flares.
- Flashlights.
- Illumination rounds (M203, mortar, and artillery).
- Chemical lights.
- Infrared strobe lights
- Strobe lights.
- PVS-5, NVD.
- Burning fuel (saturated sand in a can).
- Luminous compass dial.
These signals can be used to identify a critical trail junction, initiate an attack, mark caches, or report that a danger area is clear. White powder can be used to indicate direction at a confusing trail intersection; star clusters can signal the initiation of an attack or raid; chemical lights can signal a unit cache; and a flashlight with a blue filter (using an X cut out of the filter) can signal all clear to a unit crossing a danger area. The possibilities are endless; but the section chief ensures that each signal used is understood by each soldier in the section. The last type of signal deals with the sense of feel. Communications to a trail watcher out from an observation point (OP), without disclosing positions, may employ wire, string, or rope as signal devices. The wire is usually secured to the arm or leg; using prearranged signals, activity is relayed between the main body and the security elements. Two pulls on the wire may mean ground-mounted force approaching, while three pulls may indicate a convoy. Regardless of the type of signal used, it must be simple, easy to understand, and practical. Signals at night aid in control, enhance security, and support surprise. Plan the type of signals based upon section activity and desired results. Then brief the soldiers and have them practice the signals.
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