Platoon Leader Planning and Command,
Control, and Communications
This chapter discusses the planning, command, control, and communications (C3) methods for the employment of the sensor platoon. ADA sensor tactics depend upon a platoon leader and section chiefs who can carry out mission-type orders on a constantly changing battlefield. The ADA sensor platoon leader must understand the situation, then prepare and execute a plan.
The platoon planning cycle follows the military decision-making process. It begins with the receipt of a new mission. Time is the most critical resource when a new mission is received. First, the platoon leader thinks through the task. He coordinates with his platoon sergeant (PSG), and keeps him abreast of the situation. The platoon leader plans the use of available time by backward planning from the mission objective. A buffer is built into the planning sequence to allow for unexpected delays.
The platoon leader issues a warning order to the platoon immediately upon receipt of a warning order from higher headquarters. He tells his platoon what the mission is, when it is to take place, what initial preparations must be made, and when the detailed operation order (OPORD) will be issued. The warning order will normally be issued orally, either in person or by radio communications.
Movement will be governed by standing operating procedures (SOPs). Sections move tactically to the platoon rally points and perform individual and section precombat inspections. The platoon leader immediately goes to the ADA battalion tactical operations center (TOC) and becomes involved in the decision-making process. He keeps the PSG or senior section chief informed of any changes to the mission. The PSG conducts the precombat inspections and maintains contact with the platoon leader to adjust to any changes in the mission.
The ADA S3 will show the initial decision support template (DST) and decision support matrix (DSM) to the sensor platoon leader. The ADA portion of the initial DST and DSM may be general, dependent on the availability of brigade and task force graphics. The ADA DST and DSM will continue to be adjusted based on brigade or task force rehearsals. This initial DSM (see the ADA Decision Support Matrix illustration on page 2-2) is intended to be a concept, giving guidance to the platoon leader on the following:
- The commander's intent.
- ADA concept.
- Aerial intelligence preparation of the battlefield (IPB).
- A2C2 plan.
- Mission time.
- A/L support plan.
Based on these factors, the platoon leader must pick general positions for the sensor sections which best support the ADA scheme of maneuver and the ADA R∧S plan as developed by the S2. It is imperative that the sensor platoon leader make direct coordination with the ADA battalion commander to understand his intent. As the sensor platoon leader prepares for the mission, he should go through all established troop-leading procedures along with the ADA battery commanders.
The platoon leader must understand the ADA battalion and supported unit mission and the commander's intent. In addition, he must know what is happening around him and anticipate what will happen next; for example, changing from defense to offense. He must look at the overall tactical picture. The sensor plan is designed for the best use of limited sensor sections available to cover critical NAIs. Continuous updating of the IPB will aid in providing an effective and flexible sensor plan to observe the NAIs. To develop a collection plan, the platoon leader must perform several functions.
The S3 identifies critical assets in time and space by phases of the battle based on his coordination with the platoon leader. The platoon leader assists the S2 in developing the R∧S plan by using mission, enemy, terrain, troops, and time available (METT-T), the commander's intent, knowledge of the enemy, and the aerial IPB. Estimating the situation is a constant, cumulative process. Using this estimate, the S2, working with the platoon leader, develops a concept for ADA coverage for each maneuver course of action. See Appendix A for specific responsibilities.
A quick mental war-gaming of surveillance options versus probable enemy actions helps weigh various factors and select the best alternative. The platoon leader considers the following factors when selecting sensor section positions:
- Are the sections task-organized to specific supported units or ADA batteries?
- In the offense, are sensor sections concentrated in the area of the main effort, and will the sections effectively cover the NAIs?
- In the defense, are sensor sections concentrated in the area of the suspected enemy main attack, and do they cover the NAIs?
- Are the air avenues of approach on the division flanks covered?
- Are sensor sections overlapping within 10 to 15 kilometers of each other to ensure surveillance coverage and to minimize dead space caused by terrain masking?
- Are sensor sections no closer than 2 kilometers from each other and within 5 kilometers of a high-power radio frequency (RF) source of the same or similar frequency?
Once the platoon leader has obtained the maneuver graphics, obstacle plan, and has war-gamed the options, he then selects the general section positions. Section positions should meet the following requirements:
- Preselected withdrawal routes. Identify friendly obstacles and preplanned positions, if retrograde operations become necessary. Preplan artillery fires to enhance survivability.
- Rally points designated for loss-of-contact contingencies.
- Alternate entrance and multiple-exit routes selected.
- Ability for communications with higher, lower, and adjacent units. At a minimum, have two radios that are man-transportable to provide flexibility.
- Platoon command post (CP) centrally located with respect to the platoon.
A plan must be developed for duty rotation and shift work. The platoon leader is responsible for the planning and executing 24-hour operations. Work schedule. When the ADA sensor section is emplaced and operational, work schedules should be mission-dependant. The section members need to be rotated through the manual labor positions followed by a rest period, if possible. Work schedules are stated in hours, 4 hours of work and 4 hours of rest. Rest means sleep or the absence of duties. Sleep plan. It is unlikely that a flawless work schedule during the heat of battle will be feasible. However, a strictly enforced sleep plan is vital when possible. The goal is for each soldier to get a minimum of 4 hours of sleep each 24-hour period.
The ADA battalion S2 will brief the battalion commander to receive approval of the R&S plan. At the time of the briefing, the platoon leader should backbrief the battalion commander and the S2 and S3 to verify understanding of the commander's intent and the overall plan, and to present anticipated problems and get a commitment for support.
The platoon leader prepares his decision support matrix for the section briefing.
The platoon leader prepares the platoon fragmentary order (FRAGO). The FRAGO and execution matrix are briefed to the sections to ensure that all members of the platoon are knowledgeable of the mission.
The platoon leader conducts thorough initial coordination with the ADA staff to avoid problems or misunderstandings in the future. Since he participated in the commander's initial planning session, he becomes part of the staff's planning session.
The platoon leader coordinates with the S2 to obtain the IPB products and the R∧S plan. Specifically, the platoon leader must know where the expected air avenues of approach are with any NAIs, target areas of interest (TAIs), and or decision points the S2 has recommended. He also must know the priority intelligence requirement (PIR) and search times for critical NAIs. IPB is the critical tool to help the platoon leader estimate when and where the enemy will be. This estimate helps the ADA sensor sections find the enemy and the ADA gunners to destroy him. Predicting how the enemy aircraft will approach a target is the most difficult part of the IPB. The inherent flexibility of aircraft to avoid the effects of terrain makes prediction difficult. The best method for determining an air avenue of approach uses an analysis of somewhat fixed factors. These factors include the following:
- The known or suspected locations of enemy airfields and staging areas.
- The location of friendly assets (enemy targets).
- The preference of aircraft commanders for direct routes; the further an aircraft flies, the more fuel it needs and the less ordnance it can carry.
- That aircraft are limited assets that are employed quickly to increase sortie generation.
- Aircraft will use more terrain masking and adjust maximum and minimum ceilings, as locations of friendly air defenses are found.
- The air avenue of approach is more predictable closer to a target.
The S2's designated NAIs focus the sensor platoon surveillance effort in large areas of operation. By knowing what the enemy can do (for example, type of aircraft) and comparing it with what he is doing (doctrine and activity), the S2 may predict what he will do next. NAIs are locations normally overlooking air avenues of approach (AAAs) where the S2 expects or estimates the enemy will be. A specific NAI is designated to confirm or deny a specific activity or course of action. Sensor sections cover NAIs to provide early warning information to friendly forces and timely reports to confirm or deny the S2 estimate of what the enemy will do next. The S2 and air battle management operations center (ABMOC) listen to sensor section reports from many NAIs. Using these reports and coordination with the S3 help to form the "picture" for the commander. Aerial NAIs normally become TAIs depending upon the type and number of enemy present, and the presence of ADA fire units nearby. NAIs which are important to the ADA S2 and sensor section include the following:
- Enemy drop zones (DZs).
- Areas masking friendly radar coverage.
- Projected forward area rearm/refuel point (FARP) location.
TAIs that are important to the ADA S2 and sensor section include the following:
- Enemy forward alighting area (FAA).
- Enemy forward air controller (FAC).
- Enemy division artillery groups (DAGs).
- Enemy landing zones (LZs).
- Helicopter low-level avenues of approach and choke points. The ADA S2 may not be able to cover all NAIs with the ADA sensor platoon and may need to get help from the supported force. He also integrates his plan with the division or corps G2 to avoid duplication of effort while still maintaining control of the ADA sensor platoon. The S2 develops the R&S plan in conjunction with the S3 and the sensor platoon leader. The sensor platoon leader positions the sensor sections. ADA battalion commander PIRs may include, but are not limited to, the following:
- The type and number of aircraft observed in the vicinity of specific NAIs.
- Enemy ground troop or vehicular movements seen.
- Control centers or command vehicles encountered.
- Type and amount of ordnance used by enemy aircraft.
- Identifying markings on enemy aircraft.
- New variations in ground or air vehicles.
- NBC activities.
The sensor platoon leader coordinates with the operations officer to determine the commander's intent, to obtain the DST, the DSM, and scheme of maneuver. He obtains the OPORD graphics for the upcoming operation. The S3 coordinates for section positions and terrain management.
The platoon sergeant manages the logistics status of the platoon. The PSG coordinates with the S4 section while the platoon leader coordinates with the S3. The PSG determines the location of the combat trains to coordinate the resupply of the platoon using the logistics package (LOGPAC) system. He resolves any supply problems encountered on the administration/logistics (A/L) net. If problems arise at the combat trains, the PSG advises the platoon leader so he can attempt to resolve resupply problems with the S4.
When issuing the FRAGO, the platoon leader makes sure that each soldier knows how the platoon is expected to accomplish the mission and how he fits into the plan. There are different techniques for issuing a FRAGO from using a sand table to a terrain walk on the actual battlefield. The important thing is that every soldier understands the platoon leader's intent for accomplishing the mission. The platoon leader should brief the senior section chief and sections using the execution matrix and the FRAGO. The section chiefs should transpose all the appropriate graphics and the execution matrix onto their maps. The backbrief method ensures the commander's intent is understood and clears up any misunderstandings.
The platoon should rehearse the operation using a map, sand table, or the actual terrain whenever possible. Simple rehearsals involve soldiers backbriefing individual duties and the platoon leader asking additional questions. Walk-through and reporting rehearsals also should be conducted. The PSG will verify precombat inspections by the section and supervise rehearsals. The sections should then begin movement.
Check and double-check the squads. The best plan may fail if not supervised.
The platoon leader's planning ensures that his sections provide the information needed. Use the following reminders to help in making the plan:
- Unless otherwise stated, plan surveillance coverage during the brigade preparation phase for a 24-hour operation. Rehearsing the plan is the best way to achieve success.
- Integrate the sensor plan into an execution matrix according to the ADA plan phases.
- Be aggressively involved in the planning process.
- Plan platoon rally points.
- Create platoon graphics in addition to battalion graphics, if needed.
- Get backbriefs.
- Complete the sensor plan portion of ADA DSM.
- Establish rapport with the supported task force and understand their TOC operations.
- Rehearse limited visibility contingency, when appropriate.
- Ensure section chiefs understand commander's intent and your intent to support the battalion.
- Time is critical. Remember the 1/3-2/3 rule. That is, use 1/3 of the time available for planning and 2/3 of the time for subordinate's planning and execution.
ADA sensor sections are under the operational control of the ADA sensor platoon leader. The sensor platoon leader works directly for the ADA battalion commander, just as a maneuver scout works directly for the force commander. Control will normally be exercised by the ADA S3 in coordination with the S2. Normally, the ADA sensor platoon is given a general support (GS) mission, but it may be given a direct
support (DS) mission to firing battery. Command and support relationships are structured to accomplish the supported force objectives.
When the ADA sensor sections are in a GS role, they are a battalion asset with a GS mission to the division or corps. The platoon leader works for the ADA battalion commander to accomplish the mission.
In this method, two ADA sensor sections are allocated as a minimum to each ADA battery supporting a brigade or task force operation. This affords a continuous coverage capability. One of the ADA sensor sections can remain in position while the other displaces. The supported unit has the final determination on the employment of ADA sensor sections. He makes this determination using the following factors:
- Deployment of supported forces.
- Deployment of fire units.
- The enemy threat, both air and ground.
- Terrain: elevation, hills, valleys, water, et cetera.
- Electronic warfare environment.
All command and control (C2) must be redundant due to the distances involved. This prevents lapses in the early warning coverage and ensures that aircraft are spotted.
The platoon leader must recognize and exercise some degree of control over each section's work schedule to prevent fatigue from degrading section efficiency. The section's performance and efficiency will normally begin to deteriorate after 14 to 18 hours of continuous work and reach a low point after 22 to 24 hours. After 24 hours of continuous duty, degradation of the section's performance is evident.
The ADA sensor platoon leader deploys his sections to provide continual ADA surveillance coverage of the supported forces' area of operations. The sections are employed according to the sensor plan to develop the air picture by providing maximum coverage of the most likely AAAs and NAIs. The sensor sections are also emplaced to avoid direct observation. High- to medium-altitude air defense (HIMAD) radar dead zones may require surveillance coverage by the sections. Dead zones are areas that prevent radar search and include hills, valleys, mountain passes, and low areas.
In the defense, maneuver forces prepare and occupy fortified, covered, and concealed positions with ADA providing air defense. The ADA sensor sections supporting defensive operations require protective coverage and hardening of their locations. Each section should also have a hide location. The location must be carefully selected based on METT-T, the sensor plan, and the employment guidelines. The platoon leader must ensure the sections are not located in engagement areas and that the division A2C2 element and brigade fire support element (FSE) know the ADA sensor section locations (especially in cross-FLOT operations). In defensive situations, the sensor platoon will normally be GS to the division or corps and the ADA sensor sections will be positioned and coordinated by the S3. He will orient on air avenues of approach and possibly cover enemy LZs within the area of operations. However, manning considerations may dictate supported unit asset to cover selected NAIs. Sensor coverage is planned to ensure the ADA fire units have alert and early warning data in enough time to destroy the enemy. METT-T could require that the ADA sensor sections be positioned close to the FEBA (2 to 5 kilometers). The platoon leader will ensure that the ADA sensor section is not left behind if the supported force moves from its original position.
Movement to contact, hasty attacks, deliberate attacks, pursuit, and exploitation are the offensive operations used by the division. The supporting ADA fire units and the ADA sensor sections must move continuously to ensure overwatch protection of the forward elements. Regardless of the operation, the ADA sensor sections will be positioned to provide EW to the force's main effort, protecting the flanks of the movement. If more than one ADA battery is supporting the brigade making the main attack, the ADA battalion will control the ADA sensor sections' movement.
The platoon leader should establish a sensor platoon/section transmission schedule (for C2) before deployment. Each ADA sensor section must establish communications with the sensor platoon leader and the ABMOC/BNTOC. Current radio allocations allow the section to operate on two radio nets (AM and FM). The AM net is the ADA sensor net, which is used to furnish EW, NAI, TAI, and AAA information to the ABMOC. The FM radio net is a command net. This net is normally the sensor platoon net, but it is used to transmit directed EW on the supporting ADA organizational command net. When the TSOP requires it and for EW redundancy, the FM radio can be used to transmit directed EW data to supported units.
Directed early warning is used to alert a particular unit or units or area of the battlefield. Directed EW defines the local air defense warning (LADW), states whether the aircraft are friendly or unknown, provides a cardinal direction, and if known, states the most likely affected asset(s) within the local maneuver force. For example, if an EW source reports four enemy rotary-wing aircraft inbound from the east, and 1st Brigade is attacking along the eastern axis during a maneuver force attack, the sensor platoon leader should report an LADW and directed EW message: "Dynamite! Dynamite! Four HINDS from the east against Axis Blue!" Dynamite is the LADW that alerts the maneuver force to an attack and that response must be immediate. LADWs may differ from unit to unit and the ADA sensor platoon leader must read the division TSOP to learn the proper LADWs. Directed EW must be quick, simple, and redundant. It is imperative that all units, including maneuver units, receive directed EW, especially those units that have limited ADA coverage. Use of grids and manual SHORAD control system (MSCS) at the ADA sensor section level may be impractical and time-consuming during a battle. However, MSCS is still a valid procedure and may be used if time permits. LADWs are designated as Dynamite, Lookout, and Snowman (see the following illustration). They parallel air defense warnings (ADWs), but the level of warning is chosen by the senior ADA representative to the maneuver force. They are used in directed EW to alert a local force of impending air attack. They should be incorporated into the local TSOP, explaining what response is desired by the supported unit when an LADW is broadcast. For example, when Dynamite precedes an ADW Red, the maneuver forces stop to increase passive air defense and predesignated vehicles prepare to engage with a combined arms air defense (CAAD) response. The response desired by the maneuver force is unique to METT-T.
DYNAMITE - Aircraft are inbound or are attacking locally. Response is immediate.
LOOKOUT - Aircraft are in the area of interest but are not attacking, or are inbound, but there is time to react.
SNOWMAN - No aircraft pose a local threat at this time.
Air defense warnings are established by corps or the regional air defense commander. In no case can the battery ADW be lower than the overall ADW issued by higher authority; however, it can be more restrictive. When received, LADWs apply to the entire force and must be disseminated to every soldier within the TF. At the brigade level and below, EW is disseminated over redundant nets along with LADWs. The following Air Defense Warnings illustration provides general information of the air threat.
ADW Red - Attack by hostile aircraft or missiles is imminent or in progress. This means that hostile aircraft or missiles are within a respective area of operations or in the immediate vicinity of a respective area of operations with high probability of entry thereto.
ADW Yellow - Attack by hostile aircraft or missiles is probable. This means that hostile aircraft or missiles are en route toward a respective area of operations, or unknown aircraft or missiles suspected to be hostile are en route towards, or are within, a respective area of operations.
ADW White - Attack by hostile aircraft or missiles is improbable. ADW White can be declared either before or after ADW Yellow or ADW Red.
To achieve its communications requirements, the ADA sensor section must have the appropriate communications equipment. The ADA sensor section operates the FM radio set AN/VRC-46 and the AM radio set AN/GRC-213. The objective ADA sensor program calls for the current AN/VRC-46 to be replaced by the AN/VRC-92 SINCGARS radio. The AN/VRC-92 is a vehicular-mounted, dual, long-range radio that has a two-net capability.
The signal operation instructions (SOI) provides the ADA sensor section the information required to practice radio operating procedures. The section leader will carry and have responsibility for the SOI because he will be operating on the command and EW nets. Because of their sensitivity nature, SOI and codes have special handling procedures prescribed to lessen the possibility of unauthorized disclosure. Only the necessary items of an SOI should be included in extracts carried by the section. Critical information includes the following:
- Radio call signs and frequencies.
- Sound signals.
- Pyrotechnic and smoke signals.
- Signs and countersigns.
- Operations codes.
- Authentication system.
- Radio frequency assigned.
Electronic countermeasures are all the means and methods an enemy uses to deny the use of the electronic spectrum to the force. Electronic counter-countermeasures (ECCM) are measures used to reduce or eliminate the effects of an enemy's countermeasures that interrupt radio communications. How effective these methods are depends on the operator and his equipment.
General preventive measures used for ECCM planning include ADA sensor section equipment setting, use of directional antennas, minimum transmitting power, traffic control, reporting schedules, proper use of transmitter, and security. Descriptions of these preventive measures are in FM 24-33.
The most important factor in defense against electronic countermeasures (ECM) is well-trained radio operators. Training should be so thorough that radio operators expect jamming. Inadequate antijamming training may result in surprise, confusion, and panic within the section during an enemy attack. Even if deliberate jamming is never encountered, training is valuable because man-made or natural interference of one kind or another is certain to be encountered during communications. Training to work through jamming is an effective tool for the ADA sensor section. Additional measures to employ when training operators to work through jamming are in FM 24-33.
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