APPENDIX A
THERMAL TARGET RECOGNITION, IDENTIFICATION, ENGAGEMENT
The night tracker allows the Dragon gunner to view targets during limited visibility. This requires gunner training on thermal target recognition, identification, and engagement. The gunner must interpret unusual images with the night tracker. These images, called thermal target signatures or infrared target signatures, are different from the images seen in the day tracker. Targets stand out in these infrared images and can be recognized at long ranges on a clear night and at reduced ranges during limited visibility. However, the recognition task requires trained and experienced gunners. The information in this chapter provides a "training base" until more training techniques can be developed.
A-1. TEMPERATURE AND THERMAL IMAGES
Most objects have a radiated temperature either higher or lower than their background. Even if the radiated temperature differences are less than a degree, they appear in the night tracker display. If there is no difference between the temperature of an object and its background, the object is not seen in the display. If an object has a higher temperature, it appears bright red in the night tracker. If the object has a lower temperature, it appears black.
a. Usually, targets are easier to identify at night because their radiated temperature is hotter than their background. Some targets, such as tanks and APCs, have internal temperature variations that form visible patterns. These patterns are the basics of target signature cues.
b. In a night tracker, the shapes of the hottest vehicle parts, such as engines and exhausts, appear bright red. Objects with a medium temperature, such as the warm tracks, appear a dim red. Objects with a cool temperature, such as the cool hull, appear black.
A-2. SOURCES OF INFRARED ENERGY
The sources of infrared energy are solar heat, fuel combustion heat, frictional heat, and reflected radiance.
a. Solar Heat. Solar heat comes from the sun and affects the exterior surface of objects.
(1) This heating highlights the outline of the object, which provides recognition cues to the gunner, which are usually similar to the overall appearance of the target. For example, a solar-heated M113 appears box-like with a sloping front; a solar-heated M60 tank appears as a small oval atop a larger oval. These shape cues are recognizable out to medium ranges (800 to 1,200 meters) and detected at long ranges (2,000 meters). Since the sides of vehicles have more defined contours, side views are usually easier to recognize than the front views.
(2) Besides atmospheric variables and surface reflections, the solar heating rate is also affected by the object's ability to absorb sunlight. Dark-colored objects are normally better absorbers of sunlight than the light-colored objects.
b. Fuel Combustion Heat. Fuel combustion heat comes from operating engines. The heat is conducted to the surfaces of the surrounding engine compartment. Because engine compartment temperatures reach up to 200 degrees F, the surfaces of these compartments radiate features that can be detected.
(1) Heated personnel space is also visible. Likewise, engine muffler and exhaust pipe temperatures are high, which also provide the gunner with good cues. The engine, heated compartments, and exhaust features themselves do not appear in the night tracker. This does not decrease their cue value. However, a trained and experienced gunner can determine much about the vehicle from these cues since they are hot and easily detected at long ranges.
(2) A gunner can determine from the engine and exhaust cues whether the vehicle is a front-engine or rear-engine vehicle. If the vehicle is making evasive maneuvers, a gunner can locate the vehicle exhaust, which is an important cue.
c. Frictional Heat. Frictional heat is produced by the moving parts of vehicles and heat is less intense than the high temperatures from the engine combustion.
(1) Frictional heat is generated only when the vehicle is in motion. However, these features usually appear a dim red. Frictional heat provides long-range cues to classify the vehicle as wheeled or tracked. At short range to medium range, these cues can be used to identify the vehicle. However, if the vehicle is moving through high vegetation or causing dust, the visual cues can be lost.
(2) The vehicle's transport systems are the source of most frictional heat cues. Tracked vehicles have frictional heat in the tracks, road wheels, drive sprockets, support rollers, and shock absorbers. The smallest of these features can be identified at longer ranges when they are hot. Wheeled vehicles have frictional heat in the tires, shock absorbers, drive shafts, transmissions, axles, and differentials. The tires, shock absorbers, and differentials can be detected at medium range to long range (if there is no tall vegetation or a great deal of dust).
d. Reflected Radiance. Smooth, glossy surfaces, such as windshields and glossy, painted fenders, reflect radiation images from other sources. These reflections can produce odd images. For example, the fenders of a T-62 appear black because of this thermal reflection; a glossy, painted APC could be reflected off the vehicle's flat-side surfaces. An overcast sky can cause warmer thermal reflections. Generally, surface reflections are diffuse in nature and do not usually cause problems.
A-3. EFFECTS OF WEATHER AND OBSCURANTS
Variations in solar heat, fuel combustion heat, frictional heat, and thermal reflection affect infrared signatures and infrared target recognition cues. Also, some atmospheric conditions degrade the night tracker, while others can enhance it.
a. Falling Precipitation. Infrared energy does not transmit well through falling precipitation (rain, snow, fog). The temperatures of targets and background objects are decreased. The basic signature cues themselves do not change because of atmospheric transmission losses. Falling precipitation restricts night tracker visibility more than precipitation that has fallen.
(1) During rain or snow, background objects and frictionally heated and solar-heated target features lose heat. Frictional heat loss is caused by water and mud collecting on the tracks, wheels, and other transport system parts. Engine compartment and exhaust temperatures remain high. Landmarks, such as trees, trails, and contour features, are often lost. The loss of heat in background objects reduces scene clutter, such as trees and rocks, and can increase target detection. Target recognition cues are usually reduced because of the loss of heat from certain target features.
(2) Because rain and snow have a cooling effect on the target's contrast, the night tracker contrast controls must be increased to compensate for the condition, which can produce a "snowy" image.
b. Fallen Snow. Fallen snow tends to make all ground temperatures the same. Depth perception by size comparison becomes difficult because of the lack of terrain features with which to reference size.
c. Dust, Diesel Fog, and Oil Smoke. Dust particles from the impact of artillery greatly reduce night tracker performance.
A-4. COMPENSATION FOR TARGET APPEARANCE VARIABLES
Although vehicles have distinguishing characteristics or cues by which they can be classified and identified, vehicle appearance can be altered by changes in atmospheric and ground conditions. Therefore, the gunner must know how to use the control settings of the night tracker to help compensate for these variables.
a. Contrast and Brightness Controls. The contrast and brightness controls can be set for maximum internal detail of the target. The controls are balanced to give the clearest image of these target recognition cues. The following is general guidance for setting the image brightness and contrast controls Gunners should be encouraged to experiment with the image controls to understand their effects on the thermal image and thermal signatures.
(1) Brightness, low; contrast, medium to high: These settings are for seaming an area in search of targets. Background clutter is suppressed. Cool objects are not visible. Only the hot objects in the field of view are seen. When a possible target has been found, brightness can be increased and contrast can be lowered gradually to reveal more thermal detail in the suspected target. Low brightness and medium-to-high contrast settings are used in rain, dust, and light fog conditions.
(2) Brightness, low to medium; contrast, medium: This is the best overall setting for target detail. With medium contrast, brightness can be varied up and down to bring out features and determine the hottest vehicle parts. When brightness is lowered, the cooler parts, such as tracks, darken before hotter parts. Often, small changes in brightness can reveal much about the vehicle. For example, road wheels can sometimes be seen at long ranges if t h is technique is used. Experimentation is helpful in learning this target feature extraction technique.
(3) Brightness, medium; contrast, medium to high: These settings work well in heavy fog or heavy dust when little can be seen with the Dragon. The settings increase the snowy effect in the image, but they also increase the apparent sensitivity of the sight. The image appears distorted and is hard to interpret. These settings are also good for searching a tree line in wet conditions and are sometimes useful with long-range targets. Beyond 1,200 meters, small target images, such as the front view of a BRDM-2, will have few recognizable features. At long ranges, the higher contrast setting highlights the vehicle's hull and overall silhouette. This does not provide vehicle recognition, but it does help the target stand out from the background and aid in target detection.
b. Focus Controls. Most night tracker focus controls are sensitive; that is, a small movement of the control knob results in a large change in focal point. If a gunner has difficulty in focusing, he should check the adjustment of the image controls.
(1) The eyepiece focus should be adjusted first. Correct reticle adjustment can be obtained by focusing the eyepiece so that the reticle is focused.
(2) The second focus adjustment is the range focus lever. The image controls should be adjusted at the low-to-medium level before focusing the objective lens. Focusing the objective lens is learned through trial and error. It is made difficult by the fact that infrared heat diffuses on objects and does not usually give clear-cut, straight lines on which to focus. Thus, the gunner must learn to focus by adjusting the control back and forth to obtain the best image. This is easier to do when the night tracker is aimed at a prominent object. Once the best image is determined, the gunner can experiment by focusing on different objects at different ranges.
A-5. BATTLEFIELD IDENTIFICATION
Battlefield identification using a night tracker is difficult, but the problem is being studied. Little is known about the ranges at which high-confidence identification can be expected. In a target-rich environment on a dry, clear night, high-confidence identification requires a thermal image of such features as road wheels, turret shapes, gun tube, and exhaust location. Limited experience indicates that the M60 versus T-62 thermal identification can be made between 800 to 1,200 meters in clear weather. In identifying targets, a gunner should ask himself the following questions:
- Is the target moving and in what direction?
- Where is the engine?
- Where is the exhaust?
- Is the target in the unit's section? Should it be there?
- Is it in a formation?
- Is it firing at a friendly or enemy units?
A-6. PRIMARY RECOGNITION CUES
The following friendly and enemy vehicle recognition cues help in training gunners.
a. M60A1 Main Battle Tank (Figure A-1).
(1) Classification:
(a) Rear-engine vehicle.
(b) Oval-shaped track and road wheel pattern.
(c) Overall hull, turret, and gun pattern may be visible with the maximum setting.
(d) Gun tube visible when recently fired.
(2) Identification:
(a) Side view cues:
- Rear-engine vehicle with rearward exhaust.
- High-profile track pattern with hot, taut tracks. (Six evenly spaced road wheels and three support rollers can be seen, especially at short ranges.)
- Large centrally mounted turret.
- Medium-length gun tube can be seen, especially at short ranges. The gun tube is visible at long ranges when recently fired. (The bore evacuator is two-thirds of the way down the length of the barrel.)
- High overall profile with a large turret mounted in the center.
- Left and right views are the same.
(b) Front view cues:
Two warm tracks separated by a cool hull. (Lower front hull seems warm, if a personnel heater has been operating.)
- Cool front hull denotes a rear-engine vehicle.
- One track seems wider if the vehicle is positioned slightly oblique to the viewer.
- Gun tube is visible when the gun has been recently fired.
(3) Effects of motion:
(a) Changing target views often reveal more features.
(b) Direction of movement denotes engine location.
(c) Transport system becomes warmer and more visible.
(d) Bouncing is slower than that of a light vehicle.
(e) Exhaust plume location and direction are sometimes visible.
NOTE: When compared to the T-62, the side view of the M60A1 track pattern is higher and more uniformly warm. T-62 tracks are cooler toward the front and smaller than those of the M60A1. In the front view, the M60A1 appears hotter and larger than the T-62.
b. M551 Light Tank (Figure A-2).
(1) Classification:
(a) Rear-engine vehicle.
(b) Oval-shaped track and road wheel pattern.
(c) Overall combined hull, turret, and gun pattern.
(d) Gun tube is visible when it has been recently fired.
(2) Identification:
(a) Side view cues:
- Rear-engine vehicle with rear exhaust. (Exhaust plume may be directed upward or rearward.)
- Low-profile and warm, slack tracks. (Five evenly spaced road wheels can be seen at short range.)
- High-side decking and low-slack track profile combine to give the vehicle a wedge-like appearance between 800 to 1,200 meters. (The wedge points toward the vehicle's front.)
- Right and left side signatures are the same.
- Low, overall hull and small turret profiles.
- Short gun tube visible when recently fired.
- Small, low, flat-shaped, front turret.
(b) Front view cues:
- Turret is wide and low. Turret sides extend almost over tracks for a unique front view when the profile is visible; this is an Important cue.
- Warm tracks with a cool hull separating them give a signature of two red spots.
(3) Effects of motion:
(a) Changing target views often reveal more features.
(b) Direction of movement denotes engine location.
(c) Transport system becomes warmer and more visible.
(d) Bouncing is slower than that of a light vehicle.
(e) Exhaust plume location and direction are sometimes visible.
NOTE: M551 signatures look much like those of the T-62. Most distinguishing differences are turret width (front view) and wedge-shape side views.
c. M113 Armored Personnel Carrier (Figure A-3).
(1) Classification:
(a) Front-engine vehicle.
(b) Oval-shaped track and road wheel pattern.
(c) Overall box-shaped hull (may reveal the absence of a turret).
(2) Identification:
(a) Side view cues:
- Right-side view shows characteristic hot front corner, even at long range.
- Low track and track skirts with five evenly spaced road wheels. Track skirts give tracks a low-profile appearance in the side view.
- Right side with hot engine spot, and left side with cool box shape.
- Bevelled shape of the front end is visible from the right side. Overall box shape is visible from the left side at maximum settings.
(b) Front view cues:
- Front engine in right corner is the brightest spot on the image.
- Dark surfboard is visible across the front.
- Overall box shape is visible at maximum setting.
- Engine exhausts upward from the right corner of the vehicle. Exhaust gas is visible at short range.
(3) Effects of motion:
(a) Changing target views often reveal more features.
(b) Direction of movement denotes engine location.
(c) Because of vehicle weight and transport system, bouncing is intermediate because of the slow bouncing of tanks and choppy bouncing of light vehicles such as 1/4-ton and 1 1/4-ton trucks.
(d) Exhaust plume location and upward direction are sometimes visible.
(e) Transport system becomes warmer and more visible.
d. Trucks. (All truck cues are combined) (Figure A-4).
(1) Classification and identification:
(a) Side view cues:
- Front-engine cue is a prominent square from the front and sides. The entire hood and radiator usually appear hot.
- Rear wheels are usually warm spots separated from front wheels and can be easily distinguished from a track pattern. Front wheels are often merged with engine hot spot.
- Cab and hood silhouette side view is sometimes distinguish able at maximum settings. Long-bed trucks often appear as other truck shapes from the side, even at long ranges.
- Diagonal shape of the drive shaft is often visible as a bright area joining the engine and rear wheels.
- Exhaust pipes and stacks appear hot along their entire length and compose shapes determined by how they are routed through the vehicle's frame.
(b) Front view cues:
- Front views are all similar at medium and long ranges. Signature is a bright red square or rectangle.
- Large, square red spot is produced by the hot engine compartment, hood, radiator, and cab (if personnel heater is in use).
- Wheels and front axle area often are merged to produce a continuous red spot beneath the engine. This image can be improved so wheels can be seen if lower settings are used.
- External size cues are needed to establish vehicle size. To estimate the size of a cue, relate a nearby tree or other background feature to the red spot. Also, use the sight reticle to gage size. Use low to medium settings to increase the accuracy in sizing.
(2) Canvas and wood parts: These parts usually appear cool at night and warm during the day.
e. T-62 Medium Tank (Figure A-5).
(1) Classification:
(a) Rear-engine vehicle.
(b) Oval-shaped track and road wheel pattern.
(c) Overall combined hull, turret, and gun pattern may be visible with maximum setting.
(d) Gun tube is visible when it has been recently fired.
(2) Identification:
(a) Side view cues:
- Rear-engine vehicle with left side exhaust.
- Low-profile slack tracks (five road wheels with unique spacing visible at short ranges).
- Left side is hotter than right side.
- From left side, the rear half of the vehicle has a much larger heated area than the front half.
- Low overall profile with cool hull.
- Long gun tube (is visible when it has been recently fired).
- Small, centrally mounted turret.
(b) Front view cues:
- Cool, low, overall profile with warm tracks separated by a cool hull.
- Cool fenders above tracks may appear black.
- Small, dome-shaped turret.
- Long gun tube is visible when it has been recently fired. It appears as a red spot when aimed toward the unit. When fired, it is visible only at short ranges.
(3) Effects of motion:
(a) Changing target views often reveal more features.
(b) Direction of movement denotes engine location.
(c) Transport system becomes warmer and more visible.
(d) Bouncing is slower than that of a light vehicle.
(e) Exhaust plume location and direction are sometimes visible.
f. BMP Infantry Combat Vehicle (Figure A-6).
(1) Classification:
(a) Front-right corner engine location from right side and front views.
(b) Taut track pattern is visible. At close range, wheels and support rollers are visible.
(c) Overall low profile is visible at higher settings.
(d) Gun tube is visible when it has been recently fired.
(2) Identification:
(a) Side view cues:
- Engine exhaust port is the hottest side feature (right side).
- Engine compartment provides a larger red spot in the forward half of the vehicle.
- Track pattern is visible at long ranges.
- Forward end of vehicle slopes up from the track to the front fender.
- Cool track fenders block the view of the upper track.
- At long ranges, the heat pattern of tracks and the engine area forms a boat-like pattern (right side).
- Right side is hotter and usually more recognizable.
- Vehicle has long low shape that is visible at high settings.
(b) Front view cues:
- Engine in right front gives square-shaped red spot.
- Cool front deck panel gives a black line across the engine red spot.
- Exhaust on right side vents upward from the side of vehicle. (Plume is sometimes visible.)
- Exhaust port is visible as a small red spot in the top-right corner of the engine red spot.
- Vehicle tracks are visible with a small gap separating the vehicle's left track red spot from the engine's red spot.
- Turret is not visible at long range.
(3) Effects of motion:
(a) Changing target views often reveal more features.
(b) Direction of movement denotes the engine location.
(c) Transport system becomes warmer and more visible.
(d) Bouncing is slower than that of a light vehicle.
(e) Exhaust plume location and direction are sometimes visible.
g. BTR-60 Armored Personnel Carrier (Figure A-7).
(1) Classification:
(a) Side view shows distinguishable rear engine and multiple wheels at long range.
(b) Mufflers on rear deck intensify rear-engine compartment cue.
(c) Long, high profile apparent even at long ranges.
(d) Gun tube is visible when it has been recently fired.
(2) Identification:
(a) Side view cues:
- Rear engine is brightest spot on the image.
- Four (each side) large inflatable tires with a gap between front and rear pairs.
- Two mufflers mounted over the rear engine compartment.
- Small turret visible at medium range and sometimes at long range.
- Left and right side views are the same.
(b) Front view cues:
- This vehicle's front view shows variation in the temperature across its surface, indicating multiple shapes. There is a pattern to this temperature variation.
- Front view reveals the vehicle's rounded hull shape.
- Surfboard is cool and divides the top and bottom halves of the front hull.
- Normally, the front is relatively cool. A hot front indicates use of the personnel heater.
- Area of shock absorbers is visible at medium ranges.
(3) Effects of motion:
(a) Changing target views reveal more features.
(b) Wheels become warm.
(c) Engine becomes hotter.
(d) Mufflers sometimes become hot.
(e) Engine sometimes emits exhaust plume.
(f) Vehicle's large size is apparent on rough terrain by slow bounce characteristics.
NOTE: In front three-fourths view, some engine muffler heat merges with front hull and wheel heat. Therefore, this view may be more confusing than others.
h. BRDM-2 Reconnaissance Vehicle (Figure A-8).
(1) Classification:
(a) Rear-engine vehicle and exhaust.
(b) Wheel pattern of separate wheeled-size red spots.
(c) Overall profile of hull with (or without) turret.
(d) Gun tube is visible when it has been recently fired.
(2) Identification:
(a) Side view cues:
- Rear engine is clearly visible at long ranges.
- Two tires are clearly visible (each side). Their separation distance suggests a short, wheel-base vehicle.
- Two mufflers--one on each side of the top rear deck--increase the engine area hot spot.
- Overall small size of vehicle is apparent.
- Side view gives a characteristic heat pattern formed by the rear mufflers and wheels. This pattern is distinctive even at long ranges.
- Choppy ride over rough terrain is quite noticeable even at long ranges.
- Left and right views are the same.
(b) Front view cues:
- Two warm tires are separated by a cool hull. The red spot of the differential may be visible between the front tires.
- The cool front hull denotes a rear-engine vehicle.
NOTE: Entire frontal area may be made to appear hot, if the control is set on high.
- Dark surfboard is visible across the front of the hull.
- Tires are set closer together than tracks of most armored vehicles.
- The frontal aspect of the vehicle appears to have a higher height-to-width ratio than armored vehicles that appear wider and lower.
- Over rough terrain, the vehicle tends to bounce more than armored vehicles.
(3) Effects of motion:
(a) Changing target views often reveal more features.
(b) Direction of movement denotes engine location.
(c) Transport system becomes warmer and more visible.
(d) Exhaust plume location and direction are sometimes visible.
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