Military

1. Purpose. The information and procedures in this SOP will enable all assigned aviators to master the techniques needed to conduct operations in an overwater environment. Overwater operations are those operations conducted outside the gliding distance of the shoreline.

2. Scope. These procedures apply to all aviators assigned to _______________ (unit) and to all individuals acting as crew members in aircraft assigned to ________________ (unit).

3. Overwater Flying Techniques and Procedures.

a. All flights operating in an overwater environment will have, as a minimum, the following crew mixes:

(1) Aircraft must have two pilots that meet the criteria described in the appropriate aircrew training manual. Single-pilot operations are not authorized for training in overwater operations.

(2) At least two aircraft are required for overwater operations. This provides for mutual support in case one aircraft has an emergency that requires extraction from the water. Special considerations are required for single-engine aircraft (OH-58(I)) and for dedicated SAR aircraft. UH-60 aircraft may perform single aircraft overwater flight when specific requirements are briefed during the mission briefing/OPORD.

b. To enhance mission safety, many situations will require varying altitudes. Unless stated differently in the operations order, the standard flight altitude for overwater day and/or NVG training is 50 to 80 feet above the water.

c. The base airspeed for operations conducted in an overwater environment is 80 KIAS for the OH-58D(I) and 100 KIAS for the AH-64 and UH-60.

d. The standard formation for overwater flight is echelon right or left. This will be briefed before multiship operations are conducted. The normal rotor separation shall be ten rotor diameters. Because of the lack of visual cues to determine rates of closure, the trail formation is the most difficult formation to fly. Therefore, straight trail formations should be avoided. During periods of reduced visibility and illumination, flying closer than the required five to eight rotor diameters may become necessary.

(1) In the assessment of the tactical situation, the tighter the formation the easier it becomes for threat radar to acquire the flight. Tight formations flown in coastal areas also reduce aircraft maneuvering area. This becomes hazardous when flocks of waterfowl are encountered.

(2) During overwater flight, aircraft should not be overstacked or understacked. This is especially critical in turns at low altitudes. Overwater formation flying requires a great deal of discipline. Pilots should take care that they do not fall far behind the aircraft to the front. Falling back may result in the visual loss of the flight.

e. The minimum weather for training is 1,000-foot ceilings and 3 SM visible horizon in two quadrants of the horizon. This is one of the most critical aspects of the overwater environment because of the rapid changes that may occur. In addition, signs of impending bad weather over water are not as obvious as they are over land. Weather forecasts for overwater operations will contain the following information:

(1) The sea state to include height, direction, current, fetch, and distance between the swells.

(2) The temperature of the sea.

(3) The availability of any overwater remote stations.

(4) The temperature and dewpoint spread. (This is important in determining the formation of sea fog.)

(5) The high and low tides.

f. Effects of the weather will determine how most tasks are conducted. This is demonstrated by the effects of wind on the sea state. The wind will increase the size of swells to the point that ship operations may become impossible because of pitch and roll angles created by the swells. The pitch and roll limitations for ship operations are ten degrees roll and five degrees pitch. If, however, the wind is calm, the surface of the water becomes smooth, resulting in the loss of height and motion perception. All weather factors encountered over land have different effects over water. Planners must carefully consider the effects of weather on overwater operations.

g. Aircraft used in an overwater environment must have the following equipment installed and operational:

(1) Radar altimeter (properly calibrated).

(2) Rotor brake (AH-64, for shipboard operations).

(3) Extraction ladder or caving ladder. (OH-58, UH-60)

(4) One raft per crew member in crew station (AH-64, OH-58D(I)).

(5) One overwater kit per crew member.

(6) Two seven-man rafts (UH-60).

NOTE: Crew doors will be removed on OH-58D(I) and UH-60 aircraft.

h. When the approach direction to a target in an overwater environment is being planned, the noise of the helicopters must be masked. To do this, the flight must use wind direction to reduce maneuvering and avoid easily detectable power changes. To avoid excess noise, the flight should approach the target into the wind. This also will help the flight conduct approaches. Moon angle, illumination, and background lights are all considerations when a target is being approached. Canopy reflections and moon reflection from the water help to identify aircraft from long distances.

i. Depending on the surface of the water and weather conditions, pilots may find the transition from overland altitudes to overwater altitudes difficult. This transition is critical in overwater operations and must be planned carefully. At the shoreline, the pilot may plan so that turns are parallel the coast line and the coastline can be kept in sight while making the descent to overwater altitudes. This enables the pilot of the lead aircraft to gain visual contact with the water, thus making a smooth transition.

j. When descending from altitude to overwater flight profiles, pilots must ensure that the descent does not exceed three hundred feet per minute. This will help the pilots avoid miscalculating the descent and crashing into the water. During descents in this environment, crew coordination is extremely important. The pilot should concentrate on flying the aircraft. The copilot should read off the rate of descent and the altitude from the radar altimeter constantly. The low light of the radar altimeter is very important in warning the pilot of low altitudes. This light will be set 10 feet below the altitude that the flight intends to hold. When setting the low light of the radar altimeter, the person doing the setting should announce the setting he makes. This will ensure that both crew members know at what point the light will come on.

k. In an overwater environment, few hazards with vertical development exist. However, the types of hazards associated with this environment are flocks of birds, channel buoys, boats, and so forth. Planners must be aware of these hazards when planning the en route portion of the mission. Maritime charts show the location of channel buoys and the type of lighting associated with these buoys. This lighting may be steady or it may flash in a set sequence. Planners also should avoid shipping lanes when analyzing the maritime charts.

l. Navigation is performed using vectoring, on-board navigation systems, and dead reckoning. The following list of techniques enable navigators to perform navigational tasks when using dead reckoning:

(1) Navigating to a specific point along a coastal area. Navigating to a specific point along a coastal area may be difficult until the flight is directly over the location. This is because of the lack of vertical development of coastal areas. This fact, along with the navigator's inability to determine intermediate times en route, makes this type of navigation very difficult. To ensure that the flight arrives at the first ACP on shore, planners should offset the route to one side of the ACP. This intentional deviation assures the navigator of his location in respect to the ACP. The navigator always will know which way he must turn to reach the ACP. If the route is planned directly at the ACP on shore, the flight may end up either to the left side or right side of the ACP. The navigator must then determine which way to turn to fly to the ACP. The offset method eliminates the need for guesswork and replaces it with a solid course of action. To use the offset method, planners must consider the winds, magnetic variation, and so on. Once these factors have been considered, planners can plot the course to offset in a direction that minimizes or compliments the effects of the wind.

(2) Navigating from onshore to offshore. The flight must find the closest reference point or ACP to the target. For example, a lighthouse or channel marker may be used as the last ACP before the time/heading mode is entered. This technique reduces navigation errors. In any type of overwater navigation, some type of reference points must be used along the course line drawn on the map. At the preference of the navigators, these marks may be mile tick marks or time tick marks.

m. For crew member survivability during overwater operations, the doors of the aircraft will be removed or opened. This allows for immediate egress in case the aircraft enters the water. The PC of each aircraft will brief all crew members on procedures to be used if the aircraft enters the water. The procedures learned in the 9D5 Dunker serve as a guide for egression from the aircraft. Personal floatation devices must be worn at all times when outside the gliding distance from shore. Crew members will ensure that all personal items are secure and that they will not catch on any part of the aircraft and hinder egression. Before conducting overwater operations, the crew should practice the egress procedures to be used during black-out conditions. LPUs should not be inflated until crew members are well clear of the aircraft.

n. The immersion suit is an integral part of the aviator's ALSE. The immersion suit helps prevent hypothermia in case the crew enters the water. It also helps provide crew members with flotation. Immersion suits will be worn during overwater operations when the water temperature is below 60 degrees Fahrenheit. When the water temperature is between 61 and 70 degrees Fahrenheit, the unit commander or his designated representative may waive the wearing of the immersion suit. When the water temperature is above 71 degrees Fahrenheit, the wearing of the immersion suit is at the discretion of the individual pilot.

o. During overwater flight, one of the most critical areas of concern is the texture of the water surface. The texture of the water surface will vary from extremely rough during high winds to a mirror-like surface when the winds are calm. The rougher of the water, the easier it is to judge altitudes above the water. A smooth water surface may induce many illusions because pilots cannot sense motion or determine the height of the aircraft above the water. When the surface of the water is smooth, the aircraft may have to be flown higher. Radar altimeter cross check also must be completed more frequently. Smooth surfaces may induce the sensation of being too high above the water. The pilot may react by placing the aircraft into a descent toward the water. Spacial disorientation also may occur over smooth water because of the reflection of the stars in the water. To prevent vertigo when flying over smooth surfaces, pilots must trust the radar altimeter and their other flight instruments.

p. The overwater operational procedures checklist (premission planning) is as follows:

(1) Maps (including maritime).

(2) Weather (including sea data).

(3) Aircraft equipment (including the following):

(a) Aircraft cockpit lighting.

(b) Radar altimeters.

(c) Operable parking brakes.

(d) Operable tail wheel lock pins.

(e) Blade folding equipment (if available).

(4) Navigation equipment/vector platform (VOR/NDB).

(5) ALSE (briefed in detail in the OPORD).

TAB A. Overwater Extraction Procedures and CSAR/Downed Aircraft Procedures to the Overwater SOP

1. Purpose. To provide and describe the basic techniques of overwater extraction of a downed aircrew.

2. Scope. Although some techniques described in this SOP may be used over land, these procedures apply to overwater extraction only.

3. General. Current policy requires that UH, AH, and OH aircraft operating overwater will not be deployed single ship or single pilot. This policy must be strictly adhered to and only in an emergency may it be deviated from. If overwater operations are attempted single pilot, extraction procedures can become extremely dangerous, if not impossible.

4. Aircraft Crew and Configuration.

a. Each UH-60 crew will consist of two pilots and two crew chiefs. The SAR aircraft will have SAR swimmers and medical personnel on board.

b. Each UH-60 will have two ladders (Jacobs or caving) on board--one for each cargo door. Chemical lights must be available so they can be taped to the bottom of each ladder if the ladders are to be used during darkness. The PC also should ensure there are enough chemical lights are available to be used for visual references during an extraction. Each UH-60 will carry two seven-man rafts, one overwater survival kit, one large first aid kit, and two saltwater-activated flares. Three aircraft first aid kits also will be carried at all times.

c. If possible, SAR aircraft will be equipped with a right-side external hydraulic hoist capable of lifting 600 pounds. A jungle penetrator with a flotation collar and a horse collar also will be carried to use with the hoist.

5. Crew Responsibilities.

a. Except during emergency situations, each aircraft that performs extraction operations must be dual-pilot.

b. PCs have overall responsibility for assessing the situation and supervising the operation regardless of the seat they occupy. They also are responsible for the installation and preflight of the extraction equipment.

c. The pilot in the left seat is responsible for flying the aircraft .

d. The pilot in the right seat is responsible for deploying the caving ladder and directing and guiding the helicopter by giving verbal commands to the pilot in the left seat. He also monitors the altitude, power, and hookup of the downed aviator.

e. The crew also will determine the maximum allowable gross weight of the aircraft and determine the number of personnel that can be extracted at one time.

6. Aircrew SAR- and CSAR-Related Personnel Requirements.

a. All aircrew members will have the equipment listed in the unit SOP.

b. Downed aircraft personnel should use the strobe light to help SAR aircraft locate them from greater distances. After the SAR aircraft arrives overhead, the chemical lights should be switched on. Downed personnel also will turn on their survival radios and leave them on the prebriefed channel.

7. Preflight.

a. The caving ladder, which is used for extraction, is a 30-foot, high-strength aluminum ladder. Before attaching the ladder to the aircraft, the PC will visually inspect the ladder for obvious defects in support wires and rungs. When possible, the ladder will be attached the right forward clevis ring. The PC will ensure that the D-ring is attached to the support wire and not to the rung. This acts as a safety if the grummel hooks should break. A new red chemical light should be taken out of its protective wrapper and broken before the ladder is deployed. When preparations have been completed, the ladder is rolled out completely and rerolled. The ladder is stored in its protective canvas bag and placed where it is easily accessible to the right-seat pilot. The right-seat pilot should rehearse the procedures for deploying the caving ladder.

b. The system will be checked thoroughly for serviceability, operation, and security.

c. Whenever possible, extra flotation gear, such as overwater survival kits and one-man rafts, may be carried for the downed crew.

d. All crew members must be briefed thoroughly and understand all aspects of the extraction procedures.

8. SAR Information. To ensure success, every SAR and CSAR operation requires certain information. A common air-to-air frequency should be established among the flight to help the SAR aircraft with the recovery. As a minimum, aircraft at the downed aircraft site should transmit to the SAR aircraft the following information:

a. Call sign, type of aircraft, and the number of personnel involved.

b. Location or last known position (UTM/latitude-longitude, magnetic heading, and distance from the CP).

c. Condition of personnel, if known.

d. Amount of time the flight can remain on station to assist the SAR aircraft.

e. Weather and enemy situation.

9. Overwater Extraction Procedures.

a. Operational and illumination requirements will dictate whether downed aircrew will be recovered quickly or wait for another method of SAR such as small boat or ship, if any are in the area. The AMC or the SAR crew generally makes this decision. All attempts will be made to extract downed crews in a training environment.

b. The SAR aircraft that arrives on station need help to determine the exact location of the survivors. If the situation permits, survivors should give vectors to the SAR aircraft. The pilot at the controls begins a right or left turn and flies an oval pattern at a comfortable altitude and airspeed. The pilot not on the controls monitors the survivors, and the crew chiefs prepare to deploy the chemical lights. As soon as the survivors are sighted, light markers will be deployed to aid in spatial orientation and pickup.

c. On the initial pass of the SAR aircraft, survivors should indicate if they are able to climb the ladder by waving one of their arms over their head. At night, they should wave a chemical light. If survivors remain still in the water, this indicates that they are either unconscious or unable to climb the ladder. The aircrew will mark the location of the survivors with several chemical lights tied together. If the survivors appear to need help, the SAR aircraft will fly a pattern to pass over the survivors. This pattern will be flown into the wind at low altitude and airspeed (10 feet and 10 knots). The SAR aircraft continues into the wind to set up an oval traffic pattern. If the survivors are not moving or do not indicate that they can climb the ladder, rescue personnel will be alerted to prepare to helocast into the water with their extraction equipment (horse collar, stokes litter, and so on).

d. The pilot on the controls will fly the pattern to pass over the survivors and rescue personnel. The pattern will be into the wind at approximately 30 feet and 40 KIAS. As the survivors pass under the nose of the aircraft, a set of chemical lights will be deployed out of each side of the aircraft. This will be done three more times at one-to-two second intervals. Deployment of the chemical lights in this manner creates a "runway" to line up on and use for visual reference during the extraction. The pilot on the controls will continue around the pattern one more time. On final, he will begin a decelerating approach to arrive just short of the survivors at a slow hover (1 to 30 feet depending on sea state and visual cues available). The aircraft will continue to move forward using the survivors and chemical lights as a line-up reference.

e. At a slow hover short of the pickup point, the ladder is removed from the bag and deployed. The ladder will be dropped outside the skid or wheel strut. The ladder may not fully unravel after it is dropped. If this occurs, the ladder should be grabbed and jerked up on abruptly. This action will deploy the ladder fully.

(1) The ladder should be deployed about 100 feet from the survivors. The 30-foot ladder will enter the water at a 27-foot radar altitude. The pilot should continue hovering slowly toward the survivors at a 20- to 25-foot radar altitude. If possible, the approach should be made into the wind. To maintain a stabilized hover, the pilot will use all available references such as lights on the horizon, trees, or boats. The tendency is to lose altitude as the survivors are approached. At a 15-foot radar altitude or less, the rotor systems will recirculate salt spray which will partially obscure the windshield. If no references are available, the pilot should deploy chemical lights to maintain a stable hover as shown below.

(2) If the survivor only hooks up, the pilot will advise the left-seat pilot to pick up slowly as the right-seat pilot monitors the survivors. The survivors should be lifted vertically out of the water to avoid severe pendular actions.

(3) If the survivor can climb the ladder, the right-seat pilot directs the aircraft down as the survivor starts his ascent. If done properly, survivors climbing the ladder should be no more than 2 feet above the water at any time. This prevents injuries should the survivor fall off the ladder. If the sea state permits, a good techniques is to hover as close to the water as possible and allow the survivor to climb into the aircraft. Caving ladders are limited to 500 pounds (two personnel) and Jacobs ladders are limited to 750 pounds (three personnel).

(4) If taking off with survivors hooked onto the ladder becomes necessary, the airspeed should be no more than 40 knots. The altitude should be high enough to keep the survivor at least 10 feet from the water. Pilots should avoid higher altitudes. At this altitude, the survivor will not be hurt if he falls from the ladder. When the survivor is dropped, the aircraft may need to return for the remaining survivors. If so, the ladder should be pulled back inside or the aircraft flown at less than 30 knots of airspeed. This will keep the ladder from getting caught in the tail rotor.

g. The downed aircrew will take the actions described below.

(1) Once the rescue aircraft is clear of the downed aircraft, check to see if anyone else has surfaced nearby. If someone has surfaced, link up if possible. If linkup is not possible or if you are the only survivor, turn on every available light.

(2) Take out and deploy your five chemical lights. Save the fifth light to signal your status (injured or uninjured). When the extraction aircraft is over you and if you can climb the ladder, wave the fifth chemical light back and forth above your head. As shown below, this signal indicates that you are unhurt and that you will try to climb the ladder.

(3) To keep from being separated during recovery, survivors should hold onto each other until they are safely on the hoist or ladder. Before grabbing hold of the ladder, allow the hoist and the ladder to touch the water to dissipate any static electricity.

(a) If the penetrator is used, the survivors must unhook the seat release and position themselves on the seat. Then they will attach the safety belt, make sure that no loose cable is wrapped around them, and give a thumbs-up signal to be lifted. (At night, the chemical light will be held high over the head.) If ladders are used, survivors should climb up into the aircraft. If this is not possible, they should hook into the ladder using a D ring. The D ring will be hooked into the cable instead of the step.

(b) Before climbing the ladder, unhook the coupling clips on the waist portion of the LPU. This enables you to get close enough to the ladder to climb it. The best technique to use in climbing a ladder is to climb the side of the ladder using your feet to push yourself up and your arms to maintain stability on the ladder. If you cannot climb the ladder or you get tired on the way up, use your D ring to hook onto the ladder. The D ring should be hooked to the side support wire of the ladder in case the rung breaks. Do not hook the D ring onto the rungs of the ladder. No more than two individuals should be on the ladder at one time.