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Recent combat experience has demonstrated the importance of commanders at all levels to plan for CSAR. In Vietnam, the ratio of rescued pilots to those taken as POW was 2.1:1. During Desert Storm, the ratio dropped dramatically, to 1:5.75. For every one downed pilot rescued, almost six were taken prisoner. Further, 72 percent of all rescued pilots in Vietnam were rescued in the first 2 hours following their downing. In Desert Storm, none of the rescued pilots were picked up in the first 2 hours. Commanders at all levels must have a plan for picking up downed pilots. Utility helicopters will play essential roles in CSAR. Although the Army has no aircraft dedicated solely to performing CSAR, all utility helicopters must be prepared to accomplish this mission. This chapter discusses roles for CSAR, CSAR imperatives and planning factors, SAR procedures, and individual aircrew responsibilities for CSAR. Detailed procedures for joint CSAR can be found in Joint Publication 3-50.2. Army CSAR procedures can be found in FM 90-18.

Each service is responsible for performing CSAR in support of their own operations.

a. Joint Force Commanders. JFCs have primary responsibility for CSAR in their AOR. JFCs will normally delegate the responsibility for picking up downed aviators to the force component commanders. Additionally, the JFC should establish a JSRC.

b. Joint Search and Rescue Center. The JSRC is a primary SAR facility equipped and staffed to plan, coordinate, and execute joint CSAR operations. This facility is operated by personnel from two or more services. JSRC responsibilities include--

(1) Developing and disseminating SPINS to be included in the air tasking order. SPINS specify the primary theater CSAR guidance, concepts, and specific instructions.

(2) Alerting components of known locations of isolated personnel.

(3) Coordinating with national, theater, and host nation intelligence assets for information regarding the area around the isolated personnel.

(4) Coordinating and deconflicting CSAR operations among the different services.

(5) Monitoring all CSARs performed by the RCC.

c. Component Commanders. The Army component commander, as part of a joint force, is responsible for planning and coordinating CSAR in support of Army operations. To do this, the Army component commander establishes a RCC.

d. Rescue Coordination Center. An RCC is established by the Army component commander to plan, coordinate, and execute CSAR operations within the commander's AOs. The component commander may not directly establish an RCC. If an RCC is not established, the Army commander must designate an existing headquarters or staff section to perform the duties of the RCC. The RCC is responsible for--

(1) Notifying the JSRC as soon as possible when conducting CSAR operations.

(2) Extracting information from the JSRC E&R plan that is Army specific and disseminate that information to all Army units in theater.

(3) Requesting JCSAR support from the JSRC when the CSAR can not be accomplished by Army assets.

(4) Forwarding pertinent data regarding isolated personnel to the JSRC.

e. Unit Commanders. Unit commanders must be prepared to conduct CSAR operations in support of their own operations. Commanders must ensure that CSAR contingencies and CSAR procedures are incorporated into their plans and orders.

7-2. COMBAT SEARCH AND RESCUE IMPERATIVES

a. Immediate Recovery. History has demonstrated that the quicker a downed aviator is located and rescued, the greater his chances of survival. Army aviation commanders must plan to use their assets to conduct CSAR. CSAR must be integrated into all operations.

b. Detailed Planning. CSAR operations must be planned in detail. This is essential for operations that are cross-FLOT. Commander's must integrate utility helicopters into their operational plans for use as CSAR platforms and ensure all aircrews understand the immediate CSAR procedures established for a particular mission.

c. Decision Process. Commander's must make a critical decision if aviators are lost during a mission. This decision must be made rapidly, but with caution. Commanders must not risk losing more aircraft by committing assets into an area that is high threat. A commander must consider the factors of METT-T when deciding to execute an immediate recovery, delayed recovery with his own assets, or delayed recovery using joint CSAR assets. Figure 7-1 shows a commander's CSAR decision making cycle.

Legend: See the glossary for acronyms and abbreviations.

d. Use of Available Resources. Commanders must dedicate all available resources to recovery of downed aviators. If the commander decides to attempt an immediate CSAR, consideration must be given to availability of air cavalry and attack helicopters to escort the rescuing aircraft, fire support, and EW assets that are available to support the operation.

7-3. COMBAT SEARCH AND RESCUE OPERATIONS

CSAR operations can be placed into two separate categories--immediate and deliberate.

Commanders must recognize and prepare for both types of CSAR operations.

a. Immediate Recovery. Immediate recovery is the rescue of downed aircrews during the conduct of a mission. For example, during an air assault, immediate recovery would be accomplished by having an aircraft in the flight follow a downed aircraft to rescue the flight crew. Immediate recovery is the most effective method for rescuing downed aircrews. Immediate pickup of downed aircrews is desirable because friendly aircraft are in the area, enemy forces have not had the opportunity to react, and medical treatment, if required, will be most beneficial. The commander must consider certain factors when planning for immediate recovery.

(1) Continuation of the mission. Immediate recovery may take aircraft away from the primary mission. Commander's must consider the intent of the mission and decide if it is feasible to take an aircraft away from an ongoing mission to conduct an immediate recovery mission. If the mission is an air assault, the aviation commander must consult with the AATFC before executing immediate recovery. The aviation commander may decide to have a flying spare aircraft designated to conduct immediate recovery if required.

(2) Pick up aircraft. The commander may designate specific aircraft with the responsibility to conduct immediate recovery, or the responsibility may fall on the nearest aircraft in support of the downed aircraft. The commander must specify and select the aircraft to be used for immediate recovery during the planning process.

(3) Recovery aircraft location. The aircraft designated for immediate recovery may be a part of the mission and formation, or it may be an additional aircraft. The commander must decide where to position the CSAR aircraft so that it can best support the pickup of downed aircrews and not interfere with the ongoing mission.

(4) Army airspace command and control. Separate airspace control measures may be developed to allow CSAR aircraft to extract downed aircrews without interfering with the ongoing mission. If the CSAR aircraft will use the same structure as the mission aircraft, effective C² must be established to deconflict aircraft.

b. Delayed Recovery. Delayed recovery is planned as part of the commander's operations. Using the RCC and JSRC assets for CSAR are part of a delayed recovery operation. However, commander's may use internal assets to conduct a delayed recovery. A delayed recovery will normally occur after the completion of the current mission and includes a detailed plan for conducting rescue of downed aviators. Aircraft designated as CSAR aircraft must be integrated thoroughly into the plan. Planning considerations for aircrews conducting a delayed recovery CSAR mission are as follows:

(1) Concept of the operation. Aircrews designated to provide CSAR coverage must understand the operations that they are supporting. If utility helicopters are not supporting their parent headquarters, they should be placed under the OPCON of the operational commander. The aircrews must be integrated into the planning process and attend all plans, orders, and rehearsals. The commander must establish a CSAR concept to support his operations. CSAR concepts may include:

• Moving CSAR aircraft as part of the operation, following maneuver elements and maintaining a standoff distance to provide CSAR coverage if necessary.
• Moving the CSAR aircraft forward to a holding area and awaiting a call to conduct CSAR, if necessary. Using this method, the commander may elect to establish a ROZ for the CSAR aircraft so that the aircraft can stay airborne.
• Keeping the CSAR aircraft at another location (AA, FARP) and assuming appropriate REDCON level as determined by the commander.

The commander must consider the factors of METT-T, the complexity of the scheme of maneuver, and the threat potential when considering how to use and plan for internal CSAR.

(2) Communications procedures. Aircraft that are shot down on the battlefield may or may not be able to use the radios onboard the aircraft to communicate. The commander must consider how communications with downed aircrews will be established. Communications may not be necessary for immediate CSAR.

(3) Command and control. C² of the CSAR must be planned in advance. A C² node must be designated and an AMC must be designated for the CSAR operation. Procedures need to be devised to form the CSAR force, move the force forward, and conduct the rescue of the downed aircrew. During the mission, the C² node is responsible for coordinating fires, deconflicting security and the rescue aircraft, and controlling the rescue of the aircrew.

(4) Signaling. Signaling procedures must be developed. It may become necessary for the downed crew to evade and leave the aircraft site. Signal procedures must be coordinated during the planning process to allow for quick pickup of downed aviators.

(5) Drop off location. CSAR crews must be thoroughly briefed on the location to drop off downed pilots once they are rescued. If they are not injured, they may be returned to the aviation unit AA. If injured, the crew must be taken to a medical facility. The CSAR crews should have frequencies and call signs of medical treatment facilities and have their locations programmed into their navigation devices (GPS, Doppler, etc).

(6) Combat search and rescue team makeup. The commander must determine the makeup of the team that will be conducting the delayed recovery. This operation should consist of attack or cavalry assets to provide reconnaissance and security, a C² facility, and at least two aircraft for the rescue operation. Using two aircraft allows for faster search times, a backup aircraft should the primary break down, and the ability to move more dismounted personnel for security. Additionally, the commander should designate medical personnel to accompany the recovery aircraft to provide initial medical aid when the downed crew members are recovered.

Utility helicopters used for CSAR operations should only be used to conduct the rescue of downed aviators. Commanders should try to conduct the search for downed aircrews with cavalry or attack helicopter assets. It may be that Army utility or cargo helicopters will work with USAF aircraft to conduct a JCSAR mission. In this case the helicopters would be moved forward to a holding area and be directed to the pickup site by the USAF aircraft conducting the search. If the isolated personnel are not located, the helicopters will not be involved in the mission. This may not always be possible, and utility and cargo helicopter crews should be prepared to conduct a full CSAR mission if called upon. Considerations for the execution of the CSAR mission are listed below:

a. Intelligence Updates. The aircraft conducting the mission should use all available intelligence sources to find out about the threat in the search area. The S2 of the aviation battalion can use other available sources to give the aircraft the most current threat situation.

b. Information on the Downed Crew. Utility and cargo aircraft conducting CSAR missions should have access to--

• ISOPREP packets. These cards contain personal information about the crew to include a picture. They are used to make a positive identification when picking up an individual.

• EPA. This is the plan the downed personnel will execute if immediate rescue is not available or feasible. It discusses the nearest DARPs the crew will move to for pick up, signaling methods, authentication they will use, and frequencies they will have loaded into their survival radio.
• Signaling procedures.

c. Search Techniques. It may be necessary to conduct a search for downed aircrews. If this becomes necessary, search aircraft should use the following search techniques:

(1) Boundary method. CSAR forces conduct the operation by designating the entire search area within the confines of prominent terrain features. The next step is to further reduce the search area into subelements also defined by identifiable terrain features. From the larger to the smaller scales, terrain features such as mountains, rivers, small towns/villages, secondary roads, and natural or man-made obstacles can be used to piecemeal the operation. The search track will be conducted systematically within the shape of the terrain parameters until the isolated personnel have been acquired.

(2) Grid method. CSAR forces conduct the operation by designating boundaries and search patterns using eight-digit grid coordinates to define the search area.

(3) Track line method. CSAR forces conduct this operation by planning search routes along what is estimated to be the isolated personnel's track from isolation point to the extraction point, according to the EPA. These search areas will consist of a series of connected rectangular boxes, defined in terms of length and width, initiating at the isolation point and continuing to the planned extraction point.

(4) Feature trace. CSAR forces conduct this operation by searching along specific terrain features estimated to be used by the isolated personnel, according to their EPA. These features may include rivers, roads, etc. Threat lines of communication and other high traffic areas should be avoided.

(5) Reference trace conducted over large bodies of water without reference to land. This method will usually be done in conjunction with a rescue ship. The ship establishes a track and the aircraft flies a pattern that crosses the bow of the ship in an "S" shaped pattern in front of the ship.

d. Code Words/Authentication. Once the isolated personnel are located, the rescue aircraft must be prepared to authenticate and set up the rescue operation. Once contact is made with the isolated personnel, the flight crew must proceed cautiously. Downed aircrews will be very excited about the prospect of rescue. It is critical that the contacting CSAR aircraft attempt to keep the isolated personnel calm. Locations should be given in code, or with reference to terrain features, or designated SAFE points, if possible. Threat EW assets may be monitoring, and giving the location of isolated personnel on an unsecured radio net will alert the enemy to the location as well.

CSAR planning should begin when the army force deploys or immediately after arrival in the AOs. Commanders of aviation units must place emphasis on the CSAR process and ensure that their units are prepared in the event an aircraft is lost during the fight. Procedures that should be followed to ensure aircraft are prepared for CSAR are--

a. Single Aircraft Operations. Commanders must consider if single aircraft operations are desirable. Aircraft operating together increase the possibility for immediate CSAR. The factors of METT-T must be weighed for missions being flown to allow the commander to make the best decision in this area.

b. Evasion Plan of Action. Each aircrew must have an EPA for missions being flown. It may not be possible for communications to be established once an aircraft goes down. The aircrew must be prepared to conduct evasion in case communications are not possible or the enemy situation dictates. A predetermined evasion plan will help make successful CSAR possible.

c. Isolation Preparation. Commanders need to ensure that all aircrews have current ISOPREP cards filled out, and that they are accessible in case they are needed.

d. Special Instructions/Air Control Order. These documents provide a wealth of information, particularly with the current CSAR procedures. The SPINS and ACO will contain current authentication codes, CSAR special procedures (such as word of the day, color of the day), active SAFE points, and other information. Flight crews must be familiar with these procedures prior to executing missions.

e. Survival Radios. Aircrews must ensure that their survival radios are operational, have the appropriate frequencies programmed into them, and that they know how to use them.