Military

(1) Archeological evidence indicates that around 2600 B.C. Bahrain was part of the civilization of Dilmun which dominated the Persian Gulf from 4000 to 2000 B.C. Beyond that, little history about Bahrain is recorded until the 19th century when the British became involved with Persian Gulf trading activities.

(2) At the beginning of the 19th century, Bahrain, along with other Persian Gulf States, was actively engaged in piracy. During this time British involvement in the area increased in a concentrated effort to subdue piracy of its trading ships. In 1820, Bahrain signed a General Treaty of Peace with the British, agreeing not to engage in piracy. Friendly Bahraini-British relations then developed and continued through the 1800s and into the early 20th century. Acting for the Bahrainis, the British signed an agreement with the Ottomans in 1913, assuring that Bahrain would not be colonized by the British. A 1916 British agreement with the king of Saudi Arabia stipulated that Saudi Arabia would not attempt to take over Bahrain. These actions provided for some measure of stability in Bahrain.

(3) In 1968, Great Britain announced its decision to remove its forces from the Persian Gulf. Learning of the British intention, Bahrain joined eight other states (Qatar and the seven Trucial States) in an effort to form a union of Arab emirates. By 1971, the sheikdoms still had not agreed on terms of a union. Due to this, Bahrain decided to seek independence as a separate entity and became fully independent on 15 August 1971.

(1) Bahrain gained independence in 1971, and has maintained a remarkably stable monarchy. Since 1869, the ruling family, the Al-Khalifas, has dominated the government and society with the exception of one brief interruption. The political stability and relative economic prosperity of Bahrain can also be credited to the sheiks from the Al-Khalifa family. Bahrain is considered a moderate Arab state even though it opposed the Camp David agreement between Egypt, Israel, and the US, and the resulting Egyptain-Israeli treaty signed in March 1979.

(2) In 1970, Iranian Shiites sought to extend their revolutionary ideas among the Bahraini Shiites in an attempt to overthrow the Sunni ruling family. This attempt at domestic unrest and political opposition was not accepted by the mainstream of Bahraini Shiites. Religious tensions again increased to a minor degree with the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan and the outbreak of the Iraq-Iran war. Despite this, Bahrain has largely been unaffected by instabilities in the area.

(3) Bahrain has cooperated with multi-national forces during Operation DESERT STORM by allowing them access to its military facilities.

(1) Although the climate of Bahrain is relatively pleasant from October to April, it is characterized by intense heat and humidity during the summer months (Table 1). Daily temperatures are fairly uniform throughout the islands. The humidity is oppressive, 70 to 80% and tends to cover everything with a heavy dampness. A dry southwest wind, identified as the "qaws," periodically blows sand clouds across the barren end of the island of Bahrain toward Manama. A cool northerly wind, the "barra," comes in May and June.

(2) The average annual rainfall is less than 10 centimeters (cm); no year-round rivers or streams exist. Rain tends to fall in brief torrential bursts during the summer months, flooding the normally dry shallow wadis and making secondary dirt roads impassable. Little of this water is caught for irrigation or drinking.

(1) Most of the main island is desert with low outcroppings of limestone forming rolling hills, stubby cliffs, and shallow ravines (Figure 2-3). Inland of the partly cultivated western coast, the land rises 50 meters (m) to a light-colored plateau cut by wadis. Approximately in the middle of this plateau, a steep-sided hill, Jabal Duk-han, rises 137 m and is the highest point on the island. The limestone rock of the plateau is partially covered by sand, but much of it is strewn with gravel. While the southern portion of the island contains mainly sand, salt flats, and marshes, limited areas in the north can sustain agriculture. Bahrain has a number of fresh water springs and artesian wells that are mainly concentrated along the northern coast.

(2) The island of Al Muharraq is linked with the capital city of Manama by a 2.5 km causeway. The island is 5 km wide with a low, flat, sandy surface covered with date plantations and cultivated tracts. The island of Sitrah is linked to Bahrain by a bridge spanning a shallow channel. North of Sitrah is An Nabi Salih, where fresh water springs irrigate numerous date groves. Northwest of Bahrain is the small rocky island of Jiddah which serves as a prison settlement. South of Jiddah is the larger island of Umm al-Nasan, the personal property and private game preserve of the ruler. About 20 km southeast of the island of Bahrain and close to the coast of Qatar are the Buwar Islands, the objects of a territorial dispute between Bahrain and Qatar pertaining to off-shore oil exploration rights. See Table 3 for trafficability.

(1) There is only one major Bahraini port located at Mina Sulman, Manama. The Arab Shipbuilding and Repair Yards' (ASRY) dry dock offshore facility is located south of Al Muharraq Island (as depicted in Figure 2-4).

(2) Mina Sulman, located 9 km from the Bahrain International Airport, is a deep water harbor with accommodations that include 16 berths, a small craft quay, mobile cranes, and container facilities. Full provisioning is available. Further development is planned for the harbor.

(3) The Sitrah Island oil-loading terminal with six main oil berths is about 4.8 km from Sitrah Island at the end of the Sitrah Pipeline. Fresh water and all types of fuel are available. The Bahrain International Airport is 20 km away.

(1) The area which encompasses Palestine was once inhabited by the Habiru (Hebrew) tribes of seminomadic peoples. The Habiru were descendents of Abraham, who with his family had migrated from Mesopotamia to Canaan in the 15th or 16th century B.C. One of the largest and most powerful of the Habiru tribes was the tribe of Judah. The word Jew is derived from this tribal name.

(2) In the 10th century B.C., the Hebrews conquered the entire general area which in turn formed the kingdoms of Israel and Judah. Centuries later Alexander the Great bypassed Israel and allowed the Jews to retain local sovereignty as long as they recognized Greek overlordship.

(3) In 63 B.C. Roman armies captured Jerusalem, and the land became part of the Roman Province of Syria. Several minor rebellions took place and in 70 A.D. the Roman armies destroyed the Jewish temple in Jerusalem and drove out the Jews. This dispersal resulted in an exodus of Jews to many other parts of the world and reduced the number of Jews remaining in Palestine to an almost insignificant minority of some 2% of their former numbers. The Arab population increased, and with the introduction of Islam, Palestine became a predominantly Muslim area. Palestine was ruled in turn by the Roman Empire, the Islamic Empire, the Ottoman Empire, and eventually by Great Britain as a result of the breakup of the Ottoman Empire after World War I.

(4) In 1915-16 Hussein-McMahon correspondence promised independence and creation of Arab states in return for Arab assistance against the Turks. In 1916 Sykes-Picot agreement was signed which stated the UK and France would divide the region after the war and all areas would become UK or French protectorates (colonies). In 1917, British Foreign Secretary Balfour wrote to Lord Rothschild, a leader of the British and international Zionist movement, committing the British Government to the "establishment in Palestine of a National Home for the Jewish People." The intent of the letter was to ensure the support of the Jews in Britain, the US, and postrevolutionary Russia for the duration of the war in Europe. At the same time, other commitments were made to the Arab leaders. These promises were almost in direct contradiction to the Zionist commitment. Jewish immigration to Palestine increased in the 1920s and 1930s. It became a flood as anti-Semitic pogroms in Germany increased in violence. By 1939, 30% of the population of Palestine was Jewish. After World War II further waves of Jewish immigrants came to Palestine. In May 1948, the leaders of the Palestine Jewish community proclaimed the establishment of the state of Israel. The territory of the state was that portion of Palestine designated as Jewish by UN resolution.

(1) On 15 May 1948, armies from neighboring Arab nations entered Palestine and attacked the newly formed Israeli defense forces. Under the auspices of the United Nations (UN), a truce was negotiated, and in 1949, four armistice agreements were reached. In the ensuing seven years, violence along the borders continued. The 1956 Suez War was caused when Egypt nationalized the canal and UK, France, and Israel invaded. In October 1956, Israel invaded the Gaza Strip and the Sinai Peninsula; in March 1957, Israel withdrew its forces and a U.N. Emergency Force (UNEF) was installed to prevent further hostilities. The US was responsible for terminating the war but Nasser of Egypt got the credit. Serious tension built up in 1967, and the UNEF was ordered to leave the area. Intensive fighting then broke out between Israel and the countries of Egypt, Jordan, and Syria. After six days Israel controlled the Sinai Peninsula, the Gaza Strip, the Golan sector of Syria, and the West Bank of the Jordan River, including the eastern sector of Jerusalem.

(2) A tense, six-year period of no war/no peace ended on 6 October 1973, when Egypt and Syria simultaneously attacked Israel. Egyptian and Syrian advances were initially significant. Israel, however, recovered on both fronts. When a cease-fire was negotiated, Israel had pushed Syria well beyond the 1967 cease-fire lines and had crossed the Suez Canal and occupied a salient position on the West Bank. In March 1979, the heads of state of Israel and Egypt signed a peace treaty officially ending the 1967 conflict and guaranteeing the rights of each other to peaceful coexistence. In April 1979, the first Israeli cargo ship passed through the previously closed Suez Canal.

(3) The history of Israel has been and continues to be a chronology of conflict with the Palestinians and the Arab nations in Southwest Asia. These have included: Arab/Palestinian terrorist attacks on the Israelis, Israeli retaliation and "preemptive" attacks on various Arab states, the killing of Israeli Olympic athletes in Munich, Israel's two incursions into Lebanon and the Palestinian camp massacre, and others. In the most recent Gulf War between multi-national forces and Iraq, the US persuaded Israel to stay out of the war, although Iraq targeted Israel with SCUD missiles several times causing some casualties and minor damage. Israel is the world's major beneficiary of US aid, receiving more than four billion dollars annually. The future appears to promise a settlement between Israel and the other Arab states.

(4) The Negev Desert is hot and barren. Annual precipitation in this area varies from 20 cm in Beersheba to 3 cm in Eilat. Sandstorms, which are called "sharav" or "hamsteen," are quite common during spring and summer. These hot, parching winds blow from the inland desert and last only about two to three days at a time.

(1) The coastal plains border the Mediterranean and stretch from the Lebanese border in the north to the Gaza Strip in the south, interrupted only by the Cape of Mount Carmel at Haifa. The plains gradually narrow from south to north; they are 40 km wide at Gaza and 5 km wide at the northern border. The plains are fertile, humid, densely populated, and agriculturally active. They are traversed by several short streams and wadis, only two of which, the Nahal Yarqon and the Nahal Qishon, have permanent water flows. The streams and wadis of the coastal plains are essentially oriented east to west. Water is plentiful in the more densely populated areas and northward. In the southern portion of the region, water is available along the major trails.

(2) To the east of the coastal plains lies the central hills region. In the north the hills of Galilee represent a lower and gentler continuation of the Lebanon Mountains. To the south, in an area largely composed of the West Bank of the Jordan River, lie the Samarian and the Judean mountains. The hills region averages about 700 m in elevation and culminates at the 1,208 m Mount (Har) Meron, the highest point in the country, near Safad in the hills of Galilee. The hills are generally flat-topped with wadis, some with walls almost 200 m high, and oriented east to west. At several points the mountains are cut by valleys. The largest valley is the Jezreel, which stretches 48 km from Haifa southeast to the Jordan River Valley; the Jezreel Valley is 19 km across at the widest point. The western slopes of the central hills region are characterized by a deep dissection; the eastern slopes resemble an escarpment. Vegetation is mostly sparse grass or shrub with some forest land on the less accessible slopes. The area is moderately populated. Water is available in streams, springs, and wells which are numerous throughout northern Israel. Southward, pools form after winter rains, creating many springs and filling wells and cisterns.

(3) East of the central hills region lies the Rift Valley. From the Hula Valley in the north of this region, the Jordan flows into Lake Tiberias (also known as the Sea of Galilee and as Lake Kinneret) and continues southward into the Dead Sea. Lake Tiberias, which is slightly saline, is 165 km² in area and lies 210 m below sea level. The Dead Sea, which is highly saline and 1,020 km² in area, lies 394 m below sea level--the lowest point in the world. Between the Dead Sea and the Gulf of Aqaba lies Wadi Haarava (also referred to as Wadi al Arabah). The Rift Valley has an extremely flat to gentle rolling floor flanked by hills and mountains which rise in some places as steep cliffs. Perennial streams flow mostly from the east, and streams and water decrease as they move southward. Heavy vegetation is prevalent along the stream banks. Water is available in lakes, marshes, and along the Dead Sea. South of the Dead Sea during the winter months, water can be found in springs, cisterns, and in shallow holes dug in the wadis. The area is densely populated in the north.

(4) The Negev Desert comprises over 60% of Israel's total area. The Negev Desert forms a triangle with the base of the desert in the north on the outskirts of Judea and its apex at the southern tip of the country. The Negev is comprised of lowlands on the west, hills in the central portion, and Wadi Haarava on the eastern border. The Negev Desert region is mostly an arid wasteland of high sand dunes and ridges with an occasional oasis. Water is available from wells, cisterns, and springs which may be 24 to 32 km apart along major trails. An evaluation of trafficability in Israel is at Table 10.

(1) The IDF has no commander in chief designated as such. The law establishing the army vests command in the government. The Minister of Defense acts as the highest authority over the IDF and is its link to civilian political authorities. This office is held by a civilian (though normally retired military). The highest ranking military officer, and the only officer to hold the rank of lieutenant general (rav sluf), is the Chief of Staff, who is also the chairman of the general staff and is responsible to the Minister of Defense for all IDF matters. In general, the Ministry of Defense is in charge of administrative and technical matters, while the general staff is in charge of "professional" matters, such as organization, training, and the planning and execution of military operations. As the Supreme Commander of the IDF, however, the Minister of Defense can intervene in all IDF matters (Figure 2-12).

(2) The general staff is organized along conventional lines. The general staff's permanent members are the heads of the five staff branches (operations, manpower, planning, quartermaster, and intelligence); the commanders of the Air Force, Navy, and functional commands; and the three area commanders of the ground forces. The head of the operations branch (or general staff branch as formally designated) is considered the second in command within the general staff after the Chief of Staff. This remains true even though a special post of deputy chief of staff is sometimes created. The general staff wields control over all branches of the IDF.

(3) The Navy and Air Force have never been designated as separate services. Officially known as the Israeli Sea Corps (Hel Yam) and the Israeli Air Corps (Hel Aviv), the Navy and Air Force enjoy a bit more autonomy within the IDF structure than their official designation would suggest. There is no single commander of the ground forces; rather, there are three area commanders with equal responsibilities in the northern, central, and southern regions of the country. In addition, the general staff supervises approximately 24 "functional commands," the most important of which are armor, paratroop, artillery, training, Nahal (paramilitary youth), and Gadna (youth battalions).

(1) Scientists believe that people have lived in what is now Jordan since the Stone Age. In ancient times the eastern upland of Jordan was a great highway for camel caravans and armies. At various times local kingdoms flourished throughout the area. The greatest of these was the kingdom of Nabataeans. The Nabataeans controlled the trade between Arabia and Syria for their capital in Petra from 300 B.C. to 100 A.D.; they also at one time ruled Damascus, the capital of Syria. The Romans conquered Petra in 106 A.D., and Emperor Trajan formally annexed the Nabataean Kingdom. Trajan organized the Nabataean territory within the new Roman province of Arabia which includes what we now know as the East Bank of the Jordan. From then until the 1400s, wandering tribesmen roamed throughout most of the Jordan eastern uplands. After the early 1500s, Jordan became another territory of Southwest Asia controlled by the Ottoman Turks.

(2) British and Arab troops seized Palestine from the Ottoman Turks during World War I. After the war Great Britain received a League of Nations mandate (order to rule) over what is now Jordan and Israel. In 1921 Great Britain appointed Hussein as the emir of the eastern uplands of present day Jordan. The area was later called Transjordan. During the next 20 years, Transjordan gradually became independent of British control. Great Britain and Transjordan signed a 1946 treaty that recognized the complete independence of Transjordan. In May 1946 Transjordan's National Assembly proclaimed Abdullah as King. King Abdullah of Jordan and King Feisal I of Iraq were the sons of Sharif Hussein of Mecca. In WW I they fought alongside Lawrence of Arabia as leaders of the Arab Revolt.

(3) In 1948 the British ended their mandate over Palestine. Following the formation of the Israeli State, Transjordan and other Arab states became involved in the first Arab-Israeli conflict. The fighting ended in 1949 but not before 600,000 Palestinians fled into Transjordan. In 1950 the government changed the country's name to Jordan.

(1) In 1951 King Abdullah was assassinated by a PLO terrorist as he entered a mosque in Jerusalem accompanied by his teenage grandson, Hussein. Hussein therefore, has no love for Palestinians, but 60% of Jordans population are Palestinians so he has to keep them appeased to stay in power. King Abdulllah's son, Talal, became King but was unable to rule because of mental illness. The National Assembly deposed Talal and made his son, Hussein I, King. The country adopted a new, more democratic constitution and became a member of the UN in 1955. Jordan suffered considerably during the 1950s due to frequent conflicts with the Israelis. Because of Jordan's huge refugee problem, the UN, US, and UK provided economic aid. In 1958, King Feisal II of Iraq (Hussein's first cousin) was assassinated along with the rest of the royal family, by the Iraqi Army. Hussein should not feel friendly toward the Iraqis because of this. Next, in 1958 Jordan joined with Iraq to form the Arab Federation to counteract the United Arab Republic's influence in Southwest Asia. This alliance ended a few months later when nationalists overthrew the government of Iraq.

NOTE: Hussein and Feisal are/were aliens in their countries because they are Hashemites from the Hejay region of Saudi Arabia.

(2) War with Israel in 1967 resulted in Israeli occupation of Jerusalem and all of the West Bank. The Israelis have remained in these areas since that time. The Jordan Civil War began in September 1970, when Hussein ordered the Jordan Arab Army to attack the PLO and drive them from Jordan. In 1971 King Hussein mounted a major attack against Palestinian guerrilla bases in Jordan and succeeded in eliminating that long-standing problem. In 1974, however, King Hussein concurred in an Arab summit conference decision to recognize the PLO as the sole representative of the Palestinian people.

(3) Since the 1970s, Jordan's stance has been generally pro-western, and Jordan has maintained better relations with the more conservative Arab states. Jordan is at the heart of one of the most complex and charged issues in the whole Middle East problem--the future of the West Bank, Jerusalem, and the Palestinian refugees. The continuation of a stable and dependable regime in Jordan is of primary importance to the US in its efforts to assist in finding a just and lasting peace in the region.

(4) Subsidies from Iraq and Saudi Arabia have kept the country solvent, but the blockade against Iraq during the recent Gulf war has deeply damaged its economy. The high birthrate of resident Palestinians has put an additional strain on the kingdom. During the recent Gulf war, Jordan sided with Iraq, which is not favorably considered at this time.

(1) The desert regions of the East Bank receive less than 12 cm of rain a year. Rain normally falls in the form of brief, but violent local winter rainstorms. Nights are clear in the summer; about one third are cloudy in the winter.

(2) In the cultivated plains there is adequate rainfall for agriculture, but the amount and occurrence is highly erratic from year to year. Snow frequently falls in the Amman area.

(3) In the Jordanian highlands, precipitation averages about 50 cm in the north and 30 cm in the south. The winter rainfall commonly lasts up to three days at a time and varies from gentle showers to the more frequent violent cloudbursts. Snow occurs at the higher elevations. Most nights are clear during the summer, whereas more than half are cloudy in winter.

(4) The Jordan Valley, lying in the shelter of the West Bank high ground, forms a narrow climatic zone that annually receives up to 30 cm of rain in the northern areas and less than 12 cm at the head of the Dead Sea. Nights are clear in the summer, one third are cloudy in the winter.

(5) For about a month before and after the summer season, hot dry air from the desert, drawn by low pressure systems, produces strong south or southwest winds that can reach gale force. This dry sirocco-style wind, known as "khamsin" among other names, is usually accompanied by great dust clouds. At its onset, the khamsin is preceded by a hazy sky, a falling barometer, and a drop in relative humidity to about 10%. Within a few hours there may be a 10^o to 15^o C rise in temperature. These windstorms ordinarily last a day or so, and cause much discomfort and crop destruction.

(6) The "shamal" is another wind worthy of note; this wind generates from the north or northwest in intervals between June and September. Originating as a dry continental mass of polar air, the shamal is warmed as it passes over the Eurasian land mass. The dryness allows intense heating of the earth's surface by the sun, resulting in high daytime temperatures that moderate after sunset. Remarkably steady during daytime hours, but breeze-like at night, the shamal may blow for as long as 9 out of 10 days, stop and then repeat the process.

(1) The greatest part of the East Bank is desert, which displays the land forms and other features associated with great aridity. Most of the land is part of the great Syrian Desert. There are broad expanses of sand, sand dunes, and salt flats, particularly in the south and southeast. Occasional clumps of sandstone hills or low mountains averaging over 900 m high support only meager and stunted vegetation that comes to life for a short period after the scanty winter rains. The drainage network is coarse and incised. In many areas the land relief provides no eventual outlet to the sea, resulting in the accumulation of sedimentary deposits in basins where moisture evaporates or is absorbed in the ground. Toward the depression in the western part of the East Bank, the desert rises and gradually becomes the Jordanian highlands. The area is sparsely populated but is traveled extensively by nomads. In the northern portion of the desert region, there is a continuous expanse of extinct volcanoes and lava fields. The lava flow of these fields resembles hills dissected by gullies. Rugged rock outcrops and boulders up to several feet in diameter dot the terrain. Water is available throughout the region in wells, cisterns, and springs that may be 24 to 32 km apart along major trails. Springs are located along the valley slopes of the wadis.

(2) The cultivated hills and plains form a long, narrow triangle with a base in the extreme north that extends almost to Maan. The region consists of flat to rolling plains with scattered hills. There is extensive cultivation in this region supported by water from numerous canals and ditches. This triangle also contains most of the urban areas and towns. Water is available in marshes, springs, and pools as well as in wells and cisterns along trails and in populated areas.

(3) The Jordanian highlands is a steppe region of high, deeply cut limestone plateaus with an average elevation of 900 m; occasional summits reach 1,200 m in the north and over 1,500 m in the south. The western edge of this plateau area forms an escarpment along the eastern side of the Jordan River-Dead Sea depression and along the continuation of the depression south of the Dead Sea. Most of the wadis that provide drainage from the plateau into the depression carry water only during the short season of winter rains. The wadis are sharply incised with deep, canyon-like walls which, wet or dry, present formidable obstacles to travel. The area is only moderately populated. Water is available from numerous streams, springs, and wells in the north and in pools after winter rains to the south.

(4) The Jordan Valley is a flat-to-gently-rolling floor flanked by hills and mountains. The Jordan River flows through the valley from mountain headwaters 161 km north of the river's mouth at the Dead Sea. The river drops from an elevation of 3,000 m above sea level to 435 m below sea level. The principal tributary of the Jordan is the Yarmuk River, which forms the boundary between Israel on the northwest, Syria on the northeast, and Jordan on the south. The Az Zarqa River, the second main tributary of the Jordan, rises and empties entirely within the East Bank. The perennial streams and rivers which flow primarily from the east vary from 2 to 75 m in width and are 1 to 2 m deep throughout the year. The streams decrease southward and the area is extremely dry in summer. The Dead Sea, located in the middle of the western border, occupies the deepest depression in the earth's land surface. The depth of the depression is accentuated by the mountains and highlands which parallel the depression.

(5) These highlands rise to elevations of 800 to 1,000 m above sea level. Toward the southern end of the depression, a narrow peninsula juts from the east to divide the Dead Sea into a larger and much deeper northern basin with a shallow southern basin scarcely 3 m deep. The entire body of water is some 80 km long and has a maximum width of slightly over 10 km. South of the Dead Sea about halfway to the Gulf of Aqaba, a continuation of the depression known as the Wadi al Arabha rises gradually in elevation to sea level as the wadi winds through a barren desert. The wadi continues to rise to an elevation of 300 m above sea level about 654 km from the gulf. At the summit there is a divide between drainage lines running north to the Dead Sea and south to the Gulf of Aqaba. Trafficability in Jordan in evaluated in Table 24.

(1) The Jordanian Armed Forces, formed by the United Kingdom after World War I, combined a police force of about 300 men with approximately 1,000 military personnel from various military units. The Jordanian Armed Forces were originally known as the Bedouin Arab Army. In English, however, it was known as the Arab Legion, a designation which lasted until 1956. From inception the Arab Legion's mission was to enhance the establishment of a central governmental authority through the maintenance of public order and the preservation of internal security.

(2) During the 1948 Arab-Israeli war, the Legion's strength quickly expanded to approximately 10,000 of which 4,500 were combat troops. Combat efficiency and strengths increased more after the 1948 war when the Jordanian Armed Forces became a real symbol of power in Southwest Asia.

(3) By early 1956, King Hussein began to reorganize the Armed Forces and establish the Royal Jordanian Air Force. In the following year the Jordanian Armed Forces steadily grew and modernized, enabling them to participate in the Arab-Israeli wars (except the 1956 and 1973 wars) in a commendable fashion. Observers were prompted to remark that "Jordan is really an army with a country attached to it."

(1) The defense structure is headed by the King who is the Supreme Commander of all Jordanian Armed Forces. The senior military officer is answerable to the Minister of Defense, the Prime Minister, and the King, in that order. Reporting to the senior military commander is the chief of staff who heads a general staff. As a Sandhurst-trained (British) officer and qualified test pilot, the King devotes most of his attention to military matters and personally approves all promotions and transfers. The command channel from division headquarters is directly upward to the headquarters of the general command and downward through the pyramid of subordinate divisional units. Divisions usually have three brigades, and each brigade has three battalions. Despite years of American training, traces of British military concepts remain, especially within specific units, i.e., British forms elite infantry units that have also been trained for deployment as paratroops. One of these units, the Royal Guards Battalion, is stationed in Amman where it serves as bodyguard for the King and the royal family. The combat professionalism and unquestioned loyalty of these troops have been credited with thwarting repeated attempts on King Hussein's life.

(2) The quality of training offered by Jordan's army schools has been sufficiently high to attract hundreds of military officers and enlisted personnel from neighboring Arab countries. Since 1974 increasing numbers of spaces in the classes conducted each year have been made available to army and air force personnel of Saudi Arabia, Syria, Iraq, UAE, Bahrain, Qatar, Oman, and Kuwait. In addition, Jordan has sent at least one training mission of officers to Kuwait. In 1976 a senior Jordanian army officer was appointed as the first Chief of Staff of the UAE Armed Forces. Jordan has military advisors in Lebanon, Morocco, UAE, Kuwait, Oman, Bahrain, Qatar, and Iraq. A brigade of volunteers is in Iraq in support of the Iraqi Army.

(1) Although the establishment of the state of Lebanon is recent, its inhabitants have a long history associated with Southwest Asia. Lebanon was once the site of the ancient kingdoms of the Hittites and Aramaeans. Later Lebanon was occupied by the Phoenicians, Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, and Romans before being integrated into the Byzantine Empire.

Maronite Christians established themselves in the area well before the spread of Islam in the seventh century. From 1516-1517 Lebanon and Syria were absorbed into the Ottoman Empire.

(2) During the 1841-1864 period, European governments intervened with the Ottoman sultans for the appointment of a pro-Christian government in Lebanon following a widespread massacre of Christians by Islamic Druze. The collapse of the Ottoman Empire in 1918 resulted in an Anglo-French force occupying Lebanon. In 1920 France was awarded the Levant Coast (today's Syria and Lebanon) as an official mandate. The Levant had been part of the Ottoman province of Syria. Shortly thereafter the French split their mandate into two separate regions, Syria and Lebanon. (This is the reason Syria claims Lebanon as its lost province which provides the basis for involvement of Syrian troops in Lebanon's 1974-1991 Civil War). In 1926 the French approved a constitution for Lebanon, but after a presidential election in 1932, the French suspended the constitution. British and Free French forces occupied the Levant in 1941 and under British pressure the Free French restored the constitution in Marsh 1943. The French had imprisoned Lebanese officials, but due to mounting Allied and Arab pressure, they were released on 22 November 1943 (Lebanese Liberation Day). It was not until 1946, when French troops totally withdrew, that Lebanon became truly independent.

(1) Lebanon's government has shown great instability and has been characterized by collapses in times of crisis. The root cause of this was the National Pact of 1943, which was ratified by the Christian and Muslim sectarian groups. The National Pact stipulated that representation in government would be determined along sectarian lines based upon the 1932 census (last official census in Lebanon). Since the Christians were in the majority, they would hold the presidency and would hold a six-to-five ratio over the Muslims for division of parlimentary seats, civil service and military positions. The Sunni Muslims being the largest Muslim sect would hold the prime minister's post and the Shiite Muslims being the least numerous would hold the post of president of the chamber of deputies. Parlimentary representatives (elected to four year terms) would elect the republic's president (for a six year term). The first two parlimentary elections were so badly rigged and manipulated, that President Khouri was forced to resign before his second term had expired. Khouri was replaced by President Chamoun, the opposition's choice, but he too was forced to resign because he was too pro-Western for the openly pro-Nasser, anti-imperialistic, public sentiment. During the last months of President Chamoun's term in 1958, an insurrection aggravated by external factors broke out. During the insurrection US forces were sent to help the country safeguard its independence. It was only after the inauguration of President Chehab and a general improvement in the internal affairs of the country that the US Army and US Marines were withdrawn.

(2) During the Jordanian Civil War (1970-1971) 250,000 Palestinians (including Palestine Liberation Army (PLA) forces) fled Jordan and they entered southern Lebanon, where they were welcomed by Shiite Muslims as liberators. However, after two to three years of Palestinian takeovers of Shiite businesses, farms, and homes of formerly peaceful Shiites became militant and they formed militias to fight against the PLA. This conflict coupled with growing clashes between Christians and Muslims led to the outbreak of the Lebanese Civil War in 1975. In April 1975 a bus load of Palestinians was ambushed by Christian gunmen in the Christian sector of Beirut. This incident touched off a full scale civil war. The war continued until 1976 when six Arab states, led by Saudi Arabia, prepared a peace plan calling for a cease-fire and the formation of an Arab League peacekeeping force. The plan temporarily terminated the civil war, except in southern Lebanon where Christians and Palestinian guerrillas continued to clash.

(3) In 1982, after several Palestinian rocket attacks into Israel and retaliatory Israeli airstrikes against Palestinian positions in Lebanon, Israel invaded southern Lebanon (Litani incursion). The Israeli attack was directed at PLO positions south of the Litani River in southern Lebanon. Following the defeat of the PLO forces, the Israelis established a "Security Zone" along the Israeli border and have maintained security forces in southern Lebanon ever since.

(4) On 23 August 1982, Bashir Gemayel was elected President of Lebanon and was assassinated within three weeks of his election. During August 1982 a UN peacekeeping force, consisting of US Marines, French, and Italian troops, was sent into Lebanon to assist in the evacuation of the PLO. In November 1982, the role of the marine peacekeeping force was expanded to include airport security and patrol duty in and around Beirut. Before the withdrawal of these forces in early 1984, terrorist attacks caused heavy casualties among the multinational forces.

(5) Syrian forces entered Lebanon in 1976 as part of the Arab League peacekeeping force. Syria has used this involvement as an excuse for their continued presence in Lebanon and they have been the dominant force in northern Lebanon and the Bekaa Valley. During Operation Desert Shield while the world's attention was focused on Kuwait, the Syrian Army moved against the Christian militia in Beirut and forced their leader into surrender. They then moved against the other warring militias and coerced them into surrendering their weapons. Tension still continues in Lebanon, but the Syrians have brought a measure of stability to the country. There is now hope of new elections and a promise of a more equitable distribution of representation for the sectarian factions. (By the outbreak of the Civil War the Shiites had become the majority faction, while the Christians had become the minority faction. However, representation in government was still based upon the 1932 census in accordance with the National Pact of 1943).

(1) Lebanon has a Mediterranean climate characterized by a long, hot, dry summer and a cool, rainy winter. Fall is a transitional season characterized by a gradual decrease in temperatures (Table 33) and small amounts of rain. Spring occurs after winter rains have revived the vegetation. Topographical variation creates local modifications of the basic climatic pattern.

(2) Along the coast summers are hot and humid with little or no rain. Heavy dew provides moisture which is beneficial to agriculture. A westerly on-shore breeze provides relief during the afternoon and evening. At night the wind direction is reversed, blowing from the land out to sea.

The temperatures are cooler along the northern parts of the coast where there is more precipitation. Rainfall is abundant during winter, much of which occurs from heavy cloudbursts during a few days of the rainy season. The average annual rainfall is 102 cm, although it varies from year to year. Frosts and bitter cold winds from Europe may occur occasionally during the winter. A hot wind, called the "khamain," from the Egyptian deserts to the south of Lebanon provides an occasional warming trend during the fall and again in the spring.

(3) In the Lebanon Mountains, the gradual increase in altitude produces a colder winter with more precipitation generally in the form of snow. Frosts are frequent and snows are heavy. Snow covers the highest peaks during much of the year. Both the khamain and the northern winter wind are felt in the Lebanon Mountains. Summer has a wider daily range of temperature with less humidity. Visitors to the coastal cities, as well as the inhabitants there, seek refuge from the oppressive coastal humidity by spending much of the summer at numerous mountain resorts.

(4) Both the Bekaa Valley and the Anti-Lebanon Mountains are shielded from the influence of the sea by the Lebanon Mountains. The result is considerably less precipitation and humidity and a wider variation in temperatures, both daily and annually. Because of the altitude, the Anti-Lebanon Mountains receive more precipitation, as much as 51 cm, compared to the Bekaa Valley which receives only 38 cm. As a result, the peaks of the Anti-Lebanon Mountains, like those of the Lebanon Mountains, are snow-covered for much of the year. Even though the highest point is only 1,100 m, more snow falls in the Bekaa Valley, than at comparable altitudes west of the Lebanon Mountains.

(1) The coastal plain is narrow and broken in places where the mountains slope directly to the sea. Because of the close proximity to the sea and international communications, the coastal plain is the site of Lebanon's principal cities. The coastal plain has a few good natural harbors and many shallow, curved bays. Streams and wadis flow east to west throughout the area. Water is plentiful, although much of it is polluted, especially in the more densely populated areas. The area is extensively cultivated.

(2) The coastal mountain range, consisting of the Lebanon Mountains, rises rather sharply from the coastal plain with few transitional foothills. This coastal range is separated from the Jabal an Nusayriyah Range along the Syrian coast by a geological rift, composed of the Akkar Plain near Tripoli and the Buqayah Plain near Homs in Syria. The range runs the entire length of the Mediterranean Coast, sloping downward from north to south, and merges with the hills of Galilee in Israel. The highest peak is Qarnat as Sawda (3,083 m) near Basharri, southeast of Tripoli. East of Beirut are several mountain peaks; the highest of these is Jabal Sannin at 2,608 m. The Lebanon Mountains and the coastal plain are formed by an upfold, complicated by numerous small faults, and bounded on the east by a sharp fault that forms the western boundary of the Bekaa Valley. Cultivation on the western side of the mountains is possible up to the 1,500-m level because of the numerous springs which exist.

(3) East of the Lebanon Mountains lies the central plateau or valley which includes the Bekaa Valley. From a watershed height of 1,187 m above sea level near Baalbak, the plateau decreases in elevation to the north and to the south. In the south, it is separated from the Jordan Valley by a range of hills and a southwestern extension of the interior range. In the north the plateau opens into the Syrian Plain at Homs. The Bekaa Valley is about 120 km long and varies from 8 to 13 km in width. The floor of the Bekaa Valley averages 914 m above sea level. Two rivers originate in the Bekaa; the Nahr al Asi, which flows northward to Syria, and the Nahr al Litani, which flows southward.

(4) To the east of the Bekaa Valley is the interior mountain range which consists of the Anti-Lebanon Mountains (Jabal ash Sharqi) and their southern extension, Mount Hermon (Jabal ash Shaikh). Both form the Lebanese eastern boundary with Syria. Mount Hermon rises to 2,760 m, and in the northern sector, Talat Musa rises to 2,658 m. The interior mountain range is formed, like the coastal range, by a simple upfold. In the north the range merges into the Syrian Plain, and in the south it is terminated by the Jordan Valley Rift. The entire region is subject to earthquakes produced by movement along local fault lines. Trafficability in each of the regions is evaluated in Table 35.

(1) The primary mission of the Armed Forces was to maintain internal security throughout the country. This was of paramount importance due to Lebanon's unusual political sectarian balance. Because of its limited resources and small size, Lebanon was unable to defend itself against foreign aggression. In addition to the military forces of the Lebanese Government, there are other military organizations representing the various political and religious factions in the country.

(2) The National Armed Forces were composed of conscripts and volunteers. The volunteers average ages were high since over 70% remained in service until retirement. The majority of the officers were commissioned from the Lebanese Military Academy. Christians comprised more than half of the officer corps, while Muslims constituted 60% and Christians 40% of the enlisted ranks. The Armed Forces received an appreciable amount of foreign training assistance during the 1970s and 1980s. Training included basic and advanced individual training and unit training up through battalion level.

(1) AMAL (Hope). The Shia (Shiite) community in Lebanon has been split into two basic functions. The AMAL Movement has been supported by Syria and their militia was known by the Arabian acronym AMAL (Lebanese Resistance Detachments). The AMAL had an estimated active force of 4,000 - 5,000 militia with another 3,000 - 4,000 reserves. If necessary, AMAL could probably have fielded 25,000 - 30,000 militia. Since Nabih Berri's election as leader of AMAL in 1980, Syria's influence over the organization began to increase. With increased Syrian support the AMAL militias were able to gain control over Shia sections of Beirut and southern Lebanon. One of the Lebanese Army brigades was loyal to Berri and supported AMAL actions.

(2) Hizbollah (Party of God). Shia leaders dissatisfied with the moderate policies of AMAL along with pro-Iranian leaders formed a loose coalition that became know as Hizbollah. These radical favored establishment of an Islamic Republic of Lebanon modeled after Iran's. Muhammed Gadlallah was the spiritual leader of Hizbollah, but the real leader was the Ayatollah Khomeini. Hizbollah has been controlled by Iran and has been concentrated in southern Lebanon, where they came into conflict with AMAL forces. Hizbollah had an estimated active force of 3,000 - 4,000 militia and was the group responsible for kidnapping most of the Western hostages.

(1) Syrians. Syrian troops entered Lebanon in 1976 as the main contingent of the Arab League's "Arab Deterrent Forces" to end Lebanon's civil war. 42,000 Syrian troops are still in Beirut, the Bekaa Valley of eastern Lebanon and in northern Lebanon. The Syrians were believed to have provided logistical and artillery support to the Druze militia. They have also aided PLO rebels against loyalist PLO troops. Syrian forces have the following units in the areas shown:

(2) Iranians. There are some 2,000 Iranian Revolutionary Guards in the Baalbak area of Lebanon to incude locally recruited Shi'a Lebanese.

(3) UN Peacekeeping Force. UN Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL) is a multinational force that was introduced into souther Lebanon in 1978 to enforce a cease-fire. UNIFIL has 5,500 troops in an area south of the Nahr al Litani which is entirely within the Israeli zone of occupation. Troop contingents are from France, Fiji, Finland, Ghana, Ireland, Italy, Norway, Nepal, and Sweden.

(4) Israeli. There is an Israeli force of undetermined strength in the buffer zone bordering Israel.

Copyright: Reprinted from The Military Balance 1990-91, IISS (London).

(5) PLO. An unknown number of PLO troops are believed located in the Bekaa Valley of eastern Lebanon. The remainder of the PLO's forces were evacuated from Beirut in September 1982 to countries as far away as Algeria and Tunisia, but have been reinfiltrating into Beirut. Since the spring of 1983, Syrian-backed PLO rebels have taken a number of bases in the southern Bekaa from forces loyal to PLO Chairman Yasir Arafat. The number of rebels is uncertain, but they are believed to have aided the Druze militia in the 1984 fighting. All significant factions of the PLO and other Palestine military groups are listed below irrespective of the country in which they are based. Strength are estimates of the number of active "fighters."

(1) Throughout history Oman has differed from the other states of the Persian Gulf in religion, tribal origins, and its approach to world affairs. Although subject to past invasions by several external powers, Oman has generally maintained its independence. Oman was a substantial maritime power until 1507 when Portugal seized control of the Oman coastline. With the Omani expulsion of the Portuguese in 1650, the country regained its independence and has been the longest continuously independent Arab state in modern times. After independence in 1650, Oman began an expansion program which added portions of the East African coast, Zanzibar, and part of present day Iran to its borders. By early 19th century Oman was the most powerful Arab state in Southwest Asia.

(2) As the undisputed leader of Arabian Sea trade, Oman also extended trade domination into the Persian Gulf. At the beginning of the 20th century, due to economic problems and European competition, Omani trade declined. In 1938 Sultan Taimar abdicated in favor of his son, Said bin Taimur. Sultan Said slowed the country's modernization and discouraged trade in an effort to isolate Oman from outside influence. In 1970 the sultan's son, Qaboos, deposed his father and began leading the country once again toward modernization.

(3) The most important long-term development contributing to the stability of Oman has been the establishment of a special relationship with Great Britain. Treaties of friendship that were negotiated in 1798 and 1800 still remain strong today. While formal relations have rested on these treaties of friendship, commerce, and navigation which were signed in 1891, 1939, and 1951, British military presence and assistance have never been based solely on such obligations. Even during periods when no treaties were in force, Great Britain has periodically maintained regular British military units, naval bases, and air stations in Oman.

(1) At the time of Sultan Qaboo's assumption of power, Oman was a country plagued by disease, illiteracy, poverty, and an insurgency in the province of Dhofar. Since that time, Sultan Qaboos has launched a major social services development program and has begun an expansion of the country's resource base. Sultan Qaboos has also been successful in his efforts to curb insurgency by expanding and modernizing his armed forces and by granting amnesty to all surrendering rebels.

(2) During the past few years, Oman has improved relationships with its Arab neighbors and other countries of the world. The strategic importance of Oman has not gone unnoticed, and the US negotiated a defense alliance with Oman during the mid-1970s. During the recent operation Desert Storm, Oman sided with US and multi-national forces.

(1) The climate of Oman is characterized by arid areas and one subtropical region. Summer begins in mid-April and lasts until October (Table 44). The climatic divisions are similar to the terrain regions depicted in Figure 2-30.

(2) Because of the low elevation of the Batinah Plain, the humidity hovers around 90%. The "gharbi" (meaning western) is a strong wind that blows from the desert of the Rub al Khali (empty quarter), and is capable of raising temperatures in the towns along the Gulf of Oman by 7^oC. Winter in the Batinah is mild and pleasant. Muscat experiences oppressive heat on summer nights, primarily due to the dark mountains which surround the town and radiate the heat they have absorbed during the day. The highest temperatures are registered in the interior.

(3) Dhofar Province has a monsoon climate resulting from cool winds blowing from the Indian Ocean. The monsoon comes between June and September. This is when the area receives most of its annual rainfall of 64 to 76 cm providing that province with constantly running streams. The monsoon activity also provides the province with lower summer temperatures than those found in the rest of the country.

(4) Precipitation along the coasts and on the plains in the middle and late winter, ranges from 3 to 13 cm a year. Rainfall in the mountains, particularly over the Jabal Akhdar, is much more significant and may reach 38 cm. Because the plateau of the Jabal Akhdar is porous limestone, rainfall quickly seeps through and allows for meager vegetation. A huge reservoir under the plateau feeds springs in low-lying areas. Additionally, an enormous wadi channels water to the valleys, making the area agriculturally productive in years of good rainfall.

(1) The northernmost area at the tip of the Musandam Peninsula is the Ras al Jabal, a narrow ridge of land which touches the Strait of Hormuz and is separated from the rest of Oman by a belt of territory belonging to several states of the UAE. This area consists entirely of low mountains forming the northernmost extremity of the western Hajar. Two inlets, Elphinstone and Malcolm, cleave the coastline about one third of the distance from the Strait of Hormuz. At one point these two inlets are separated by only a few hundred yards of land. The coastline is extremely rugged; and the Elphinstone Inlet, 16 km long and surrounded by cliffs 900 to 1,200 m high, has frequently been compared to the fjords of Norway.

(2) From the most northeastern portion of the border between the UAE and Oman to the town of Sib, 242 km to the southeast, runs a narrow, well-populated coastal plain known as the Batinah. Across the Batinah are a number of wadis that descend from the western Hajar to the south. The wadis are heavily populated along their upper courses. A ribbon of oases, watered by wells and underground channels, extends the length of the Batinah Plain about 1.6 km inland from the coast. Dates, limes, mangoes, and other fruits are grown in irrigated coastal gardens. Small quantities of cereal grains are also produced here. On the landward side of the Batinah Plain there are acacia trees, beyond which a barren, pebbly plain gradually rises to the foothills of the western Hajar 16 km away.

(3) South of Sib the coast changes character to become the Muscat-Sur coastal plain. For about 175 km from Sib to Ras al Hadd, the coastal plain is barren and bounded almost its entire length by cliffs. There is no cultivation and very little habitation in this area. Although the deep water off the coast renders navigation relatively easy, there are few natural harbors or safe anchorages. The two best harbors are at Muscat and Matrah; these natural harbors gave rise to the growth of cities centuries ago.

(4) West of the coastal areas is the tableland of central Oman. The Hajar Mountains form two ranges: the western Hajar (Hajar al Gharbi) and the eastern Hajar (Hajar al Sharqi). They are divided by the Wadi Samail, a valley that forms the traditional route between Muscat and the interior. The general elevation is about 1,220 m, but the peaks of the high ridge known as the Jabal Akhdar rise to 3,048 m above sea level in some places. Behind the western Hajar are two inland regions. Dhahirah and inner Oman, separated by the lateral range of Jabal al Khawr. Both regions becomes stony desert before meeting the Rub al Khali. Inland of the eastern Hajar is the sandy region of the Wahhiba, which also borders the desert. Low hills and wastelands meet the sea for many miles. Halfway along this coast and about 15 km offshore is the barren island of Masirah. It is 64 km long, and is was used for years by the British as a Royal Air Force (RAF) base, which has been expanded by the US and is presently the training base for the Omani Air Force.

(5) Dhofar Province extends from Ras Sharbithat on the coast to the border of Yemen. Its exact northern limit has never been defined, but the territory claimed by the sultan includes the Wadi Muqshin about 240 km inland. The southwestern portion of Dhofar's coastal plain is regarded as one of the most beautiful in Arabia. Salalah, the capital of Dhofar, served as the permanent residence of the former sultan and is the birthplace of Sultan Qaboos, the present ruler.

(6) The southwestern coastal plain contains splendid vegetation and birdlife, but 16 km inland the rugged foothills of the Jabal al Qara begin. The highest peaks of the Jabal al Qara are between 900 and 1,500 m but they gradually slope down to a narrow, pebbly desert adjoining the Rub al Khali in the north. Trafficability in Oman is evaluated at Table 46.

(1) While the early history of Qatar is of little note, archaeological expeditions have found evidence of human habitation in this area dating to 4000 B.C. In 1916 Great Britain attempted to exclude other powers from the area through an arrangement with the sheik of Qatar, who agreed not to cede, mortgage, or otherwise dispose of parts of Qatar territory to any power other than the British Government. A further agreement was made not to enter into any relationship with another foreign government without British consent. In return Britain agreed to protect Qatar from all aggression by sea and to lend her support in case of an overland attack.

(2) The discovery of oil in the late 1930s promised unlimited prosperity for Qatar. However, oil exploration was postponed by the outbreak of World War II. The production of oil on a commercial scale did not begin until 1949. As a result of this new industry, the skeikdom took a leading role in the formation of a gulf federation, which was later to become the UAE. In 1961 Qatar joined the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) and in 1970 became a member of the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC).

(3) A provisional constitution was announced in April 1970 and in the following month the first cabinet was formed. Qatar decided to remain outside the gulf federation and became independent on 3 September 1971, joining the UN and the Arab League.

(1) In February 1972 Sheik Khalifa Al-Thani, with the support of the ruling Al-Thani family, seized power after a bloodless coup deposed his cousin, Sheik Ahmad Al-Thani. Since his accession, Sheik Khalifa has sought discreet changes while preserving the Islamic way of life. He has also attempted to avoid complete dependence on Qatar's oil reserves and has encouraged the growth of other industries.

(2) Since independence, Qatar has earned a reputation as a moderate Arab state. Along with the rest of the Arab world, Qatar opposed the Camp David agreements between Egypt, Israel, and the US and the resulting Egyptain-Israeli peace treaty signed in March 1979.

(3) The country is heavily populated by foreign workers. After the invasion of Kuwait by Iraqi troops, Qatar granted multinational forces military access to its peninsula.

(1) The climate is characterized by intense heat and humidity between June and September (Table 53). The months of April, May, October, and November are more pleasant. Humidity is oppressive along the coast and reaches as high as 90%, but declines below 30% a few miles inland. Rainfall seldom reaches 13 cm a year; confined to the winter months, the rain falls in short storms that often flood small ravines and the usually dry wadis.

(2) The northwesterly winds called the "shamal" and the southeasterly winds called the "sharqi" are the principal winds in the region. The shamal sometimes brings rain in the winter and the sharqi brings hot dry air in the summer. The sharqi frequently causes hazardous sand and dust storms.

(1) Syria is the name given by the ancient Greeks to the geographical land bridge that lies between the Mediterranean Sea and the Southwest Asian deserts and links three continents. Historians and political scientists usually use the term Greater Syria to denote the area in the prestate period. Greater Syria was originally a coinage of the Ottoman Turks who lost the area to European powers as a result of World War I.

(2) Incorporating some of the oldest continual inhabited cities in the world, Greater Syria was in a unique position to foster intellectual activities. By 1400 B.C. the cities of Damascus, Aleppo, Hama, Byblos, Jofa, Homs, Gaza, Tyre, and Sidon had already been established. Ottoman rule of Greater Syria dates from the early 1500s into the 19th century when European powers had begun to take advantage of Ottoman weaknesses through both military and political intervention. These advances included Napoleon's invasion of Egypt, subsequent British intervention, and French occupation of Lebanon. Western penetration became decidedly political after the Druze uprising in the Syrian province of Lebanon in 1860. The revolt began in the north as a Maronite Christian peasant uprising against Christian landlords. As the revolt moved southward to the territories of the Druze landlords, it increased in scope and resulted in a Druze massacre of over 10,000 Maronites. After the Maronite slaughter, France sent troops into Lebanon, an occupation which forced new laws for Lebanon. By the Statute of 1861, Mount Lebanon (present day Lebanon) was detached from Syria, and Lebanese administration was transferred to the control of France.

(3) The period from the outbreak of World War I to the granting of France's mandate over Syria by the League of Nations in 1922 was marked by a complicated sequence of events during which Syria saw a brief moment of independence. The move for independence began in 1915 in the Arabian Peninsula when the British, anxious for Arab support, persuaded Sharif Hussain, leader of the Hashimite family and an Ottoman appointee over the Hejaz, to lead the Arabs in revolt against the Turks. In October 1918 an Arab army led by Hussain's son Faisal (Faysal) entered Damascus and immediately assumed control of all Syria except for the coastal areas along the Mediterranean where French troops were garrisoned. In July 1919 Faisal convened the General Syria Congress which declared Syria sovereign and free. The following March that same congress proclaimed Faisal King of Syria.

(4) Early in World War I, the French, British, Italians, and Czarist Russians met secretly to decide the fate of the Arab lands. This meeting resulted in the Sykes-Picot agreement, signed only six months after Hussain had vaguely been promised an Arab kingdom. In 1919 Faisal attended the Versailles Peace Conference where his pleas for a sovereign Syria went unheard. Disappointed by his failure at Versailles, Faisal returned to Damascus and declared Syria free and independent. During the San Remo Conference April of 1920, Great Britain and France partitioned the Arab world into mandates. Syria became a French mandate and French soldiers marched from Beirut to Damascus where, by 25 July 1920, they crushed all Arab resistance in the city. Syria remained under French rule and became a refuge for persecuted groups from neighboring countries during the 1920s and 1930s. The World War II entry of allied troops brought a promise of eventual independence from the French. Syria elected a parliament in 1943, and in 1944 the Syria Government took over the functions of the 14 administrative departments. France, however, continued to control social, cultural, and educational services as well the Troupes Speciales du Levant, a specially trained unit employed for security purposes.

(5) Syria and Lebanon were recognized as countries in July 1944 by the Soviet Union and in September 1944 by the United States. British recognition followed the next year. These allied nations brought pressure on France to evacuate Syria. The new Syrian Government demanded the withdrawal of French troops under the threat of a Syrian-formed national army. France finally agreed to withdraw its forces, but only after Syria's ratification of a treaty which gave France a privileged position in the country. In January 1945 the Syrian Government announced the formation of a national army and in February declared war on the Axis powers. In March 1945 the country became a charter member of the United Nations, an indication of status as a sovereign nation. In April 1945 Syria affirmed its allegiance to the idea of Arab unity by signing the pact of the League of Arab States (Arab League).

(6) The already embittered feelings that the Syrians had for France were increased when France demanded that its cultural, economic, and strategic interests be protected by treaty. This demand caused demonstrations in Damascus and Aleppo for the third time in 20 years. It was only after Prime Minister Churchill threatened to send in British troops that France began to withdraw. By 15 April 1946, all French troops had left Syria soil. On 17 April 1946, Syria celebrated Evacuation Day, which is now Independence Day and a national holiday.

(1) Syrian began independence under President Kuwatly, who was backed by a splintered parliament having no real leadership. The first crisis for the newly formed government was the creation of Israel. In May 1948 Syrian troops along with other Arab armies invaded Israel. By the end of 1948 the Syrians were sorely disappointed in their government's failure to defeat Israel and in their inability to move ahead in a cohesive fashion. During the period from 30 March 1949 to 25 February 1954, four coups d'etat took place. By 1955 the balance of power began to swing in favor of Syrian left-wing elements. The rise of the left-wing brought about closer relations with the Soviet Union and other communist countries. Several barter and cultural agreements were concluded with the Soviet Bloc between 1954 and 1956; missions were exchanged; and an arms deal was made in 1956. During this same period, Syria became increasingly isolated from its Arab neighbors.

(2) Because of the growing swing to the left Syrian oficials were able to convince the Eqyptians that a union was necessary to avert a Communist takeover. In February 1958 a union with Egypt was announced which formed the UAR. The form in which the UAR emerged was not what the Syrians had envisioned. Nasser was chosen as President of the republic and while making little apparent effort to placate Syrian dissatisfaction, continued with his planned integration of the UAR. On 28 September 1961 a military coup was staged in Damascus, and Syria seceded from the UAR.

(3) In the period between 1961 and 1966, all competing factions and interest groups in Syria became involved in the fight for power. This period was a time of coups and counter-coups as well as the rise to power of the Baathist Party. During this period several different governments were no sooner formed than they were abolished.

(4) In February 1966 in the bloodiest coup d'etat since 1949, radical Syrian Army Baathists, led by Salah Jadid, seized control of the government. The conflict was primarily between two factions of the Baath Party. After seizing the radio station, one of the first acts of the new government was to announce the appointment of Major General Hafez al Assad as Minister of Defense.

(5) The defeat of Syria and Egypt in the 1967 war with Israel discredited the radical socialist regimes of Nassar's Egypt and Jadid's Syria. This defeat was the catalyst for Assad's rise to power in Syria; Assad blamed Jadid's fraction for the debacle in 1967 and the two Baathist's fractions heightened their conflict until February 1969, when they agreed to an uneasy coexistence. Outbreak of the Jordan Civil War in September 1970 led to a final settlement of this intra-party conflict. As Air Force Chief, Assad refused to provide air support for Syrian troops sent to the aid of the PLO in Jordan. Jadid's groups demanded Assad's resignation, but Assad ignored the demands and he took power in a bloodless coup on 16 November 1970. Assad has remained in power ever since their achievement of independence. However, he has maintained this stability only by being an iron-fisted blood-thirsty dictator.

(6) During the recent Gulf War, Syria sided with the US and multinational forces by sending one division to Saudi Arabia in support of Kuwait and Saudi Arabia.

(1) The Syrian climate is predominantly dry; the most striking feature is the contrasting influences of the Mediterranean Sea and desert regions. Between the humid Mediterranean and the arid desert regions lies a semiarid steppe zone extending across three fourths of the country (Table 63).

(2) The western portion of the country is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea. While frost is unknown at lower elevations, the mountains are sometimes snow-covered. Rainfall in this area is fairly abundant with annual precipitation ranging between 75 to 100 cm. Most of the rain, which is carried by winds from the coastline, falls between November and May. Rainfall is basically blocked on the west side of the Jabal an Nusayriyah Mountain Range preventing the moisture from passing over the mountains from the west to the east. The result is an arid zone with warm, dry winds and scanty rainfall on the east side of the mountain range.

(3) Farther south, in a portion of the semiarid climatic zone, lies Damascus with an average rainfall of less than 20 cm a year, most of which occurs between November and February.

(4) In the desert region of southeast and central Syria, the humidity decreases and annual precipitation falls below 10 cm. The scanty amounts of rain are highly variable from year to year, thus causing periodic droughts. Sandstorms are common during February and May. In the northern regions of the country, precipitation averages 20 to 25 cm a year; daytime temperatures are high during the summer months; and there are severe frosts from November to March.

(1) Along the Mediterranean, a narrow coastal plain stretches from the Turkish border to Lebanon. The maximum width of this plain is 32 km, and in some places the mountains meet the sea. The plain is made up of lagoons, swamps, and cultivated areas. Small towns and ports are scattered throughout the region.

(2) The Jabal an Nusayriyah Mountain Range parallels the coastal plain and averages over 1,212 m in elevation. Nabi Yunis, the highest peak is 1,575 m. The western slopes catch the moisture-laden sea winds and are thus more fertile and more heavily populated than the eastern slopes. Before reaching the Lebanese border and the Anti-Lebanon Mountains, the Jabal an Nusayriyah Range ends, leaving a corridor--the Homs Gap. For centuries the Homs Gap has been a favorite trade and invasion route from the coast to the country's interior. Eastward, the line of the Jabal an Nusayriyah is separated from the Jabal az Zawiyah Range and the plateau region by the Al Ghab Depression, a fertile, irrigated trench crossed by the meandering (river) al Asi. Inland and farther south, the Anti-Lebanon Mountains rise to peaks of over 2,700 m on the Syrian-Lebanese frontier and spread in spurs eastward toward the plateau region. Vegetation on the eastern slopes, which receive little rainfall, consists of sparse grasses or shrubs. Water is available in numerous streams, springs, and wells. Deep snow is found on the highest peaks. In the southwest the lofty Mount Hermon (Jabal ash Shaykh) descends to the Hawran Plateau. Volcanic cones, some reaching over 900 m, intersperse the open, rolling, once fertile plateau. Southeast of the plateau lies the high volcanic region of the Jabal Druze Range, which is the home of Syria's Druze population.

(3) The entire eastern plateau region is intersected by a low chain of mountains, the Jabal ar Ruwaq, the Jabal Abu Rujmayn, and the Jabal Bishri, extending northeastward from the Jabal Druze to the Euphrates River. South of these mountains lies a barren desert region known as the Hamad. Northward lies another barren area known as the Homs Desert, which has a hard-packed dirt surface. The terrain is generally distinguished by steep wadi walls, scattered hillocks, and minor escarpments generally less than 45 m high. Water is available in wells, cisterns, and springs that may be 25 to 30 km apart along major trails.

(4) The rolling upland region northeast of the Euphrates River is the fertile al Hazirah (the island), watered by the tributaries of the Euphrates and the Khabur Rivers. The Euphrates River is generally more than 150 m wide and 6 to 12 m deep from early February through June. During the rest of the year the river is normally no more than 30 m wide, less than 3 m deep, and the banks are low and muddy. Trafficability in Syria is evaluated in Table 65.

(1) Damascus, one of the oldest cities in the world, was a seat of Christianity until it fell to the conquering armies of Islam in the seventh century A.D. The city is divided into two sections, the modern section with tall buildings and wide streets, and the old city with narrow, twisting streets and crowds of people. With a rapidly increasing urban population, Damascus is faced with housing shortages and inadequate municipal services for sewage disposal and potable water. Health conditions have generally improved, but there is still a high incidence of infectious diseases, heart problems, and cancer.

(2) Secondary urban areas include Aleppo, Homs, Hama, and Latakia. Massive growth in these cities has caused problems similar to those in Damascus.

(1) French mandate authorities were responsible for the initial development of Syria's Armed Forces; however, by the mid-1940s Syrians had developed a profound distrust of the French in particular, and Westerners in general. Two days after Israel became a state, the Syrian Armed Forces along with other Arab League States attacked Israel. Within 10 days it became apparent that the Arab League had grossly underestimated the Israelis. Although Syria lost no ground in this first confrontation with Israel, Syrian forces were totally humiliated. The first of 21 coups in Syria began in March 1949, as did the first of four armistice agreements between the Arabs and Israel. On 6 June 1967 Syria and Israel were again at war, only this time Syria was to lose 1,295 km² of territory on the Golan Heights. The disastrous 1967 Arab defeat led to increased support for the Palestinian guerrilla forces, which had been united with the PLO in 1964.

(2) By 1973, Syria's attempts to professionalize its armed forces had borne fruit. This was largely due to aid from the Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia. On 6 October 1973, Syria and Egypt simultaneously launched attacks into Israel. Although Syria lost more than it gained during the 1973 war, vast improvements along Soviet lines in Syrian Armed Forces were evident.

(3) Syrian peacekeeping forces in Lebanon were moved quite easily by the Israeli Army in late 1982, when Israel invaded Lebanon. However, the Israelis found that the Syrian Army fought much better than they had in the previous wars. Since the 1982 Lebanon incursion, the Israelis have become concerned over the Soviet upgrades of the Syrian forces.

(1) The Air Force has the mission of defending Syrian airspace and conducting operations in support of ground forces when in conflict. The Air Force, consisting of 40,000 personnel, has approximately 550 x combat aircraft and 100 x armed helicopters.

(2) The Syrian Air Force is organized into 2 x air divisions, 14 x air brigades, and 1 x air defense command. The fighter interceptor squadrons are the largest group in the air force with 18 x squadrons, following by 14 x fighter ground attack (FGA) squadrons. There are also RECCE, Electronic warfare (EW), and transport aircraft. Additionally, there are numerous attack and transport helicopters.

(1) The UAE climate is arid with high summer temperatures from May to October (Table 75). In the mountains the temperatures are considerably cooler. Humidity exceeds 85% along the coast during summer and because of this high humidity a dense cloud cover forms in the coastal area most nights. During the late summer months, a humid wind known as the "sharqi" combines with the already humid conditions and makes the coastal region especially unpleasant.

(2) Despite the high humidity, the average rainfall in the coastal area is less than 13 cm, but in the mountains annual rainfall often reaches 38 cm. Rain in the coastal region falls in short torrential bursts during the summer months, resulting in floods in the dry wadi beds. Droughts are frequent.

(1) The UAE has only two natural regions: the desert and the mountain rim of the northeast. To the south and west of Abu Dhabi the vast rolling sand dunes merge into the Rub al Khali (empty quarter) of Saudi Arabia. Large sections of the Abu Dhabi coast are salt marshes (sabkhat) that extend approximately 10-15 km inland. The terrain consists mostly of dark sand dunes, stony hillocks, and pebbly tracts. This region is bordered on the west by the Sabkhat Matti (salt marsh) that extends southward for 112 km and eventually merges with the vast wastes of the Rub al Khali. The Al Liwa is a series of 30 oases which extend 65 km from east to west and are situated 100 km from the coast and 160 km southwest of Abu Dhabi City. These oases lie in a depression surrounded by sand dunes. Water is available, but at several meters below the surface. To the south of the oasis are the Rub al Khali and Umm as Samim salt flats. Another oasis, Al Buraymi, lies 160 km east of Abu Dhabi City. This oasis also has adequate water available. The rest of the region is desert until it reaches the foothills of the Western Hajar Mountains in the north.

(2) The Western Hajar Mountains in the UAE are bordered to the east by the Gulf of Oman and to the west by a flat desert region. The mountains rising in places from 2,200 to 2,400 m, come close to the shore in various locations. Ras al Khaymah, Fujayrah, and the eastern part of Sharjah are hilly or mountainous regions topographically distinct from Abu Dhabi and Dubai, which together account for more than 87% of UAE territory. There is some cultivation along the wadis of Siji and Ham but otherwise the Hajar is barren. In the vicinity of Al Fujayrah, a small coastal plain continues southward into Oman. Trafficability in the UAE is evaluated at Table 77.

(1) From 1200 B.C. to about 500 A.D., the eastern part of Yemen was part of the Minaen, Sabaean, and and the Himyarite Kingdoms. Later conquerors included Ethiopians, Persians, Egyptians, and Ottoman Turks.

(2) The history of the former Yemen Arab Republic (YAR) in the western part of Yemen goes back to classical times when the region was called Arabia Felix. At that time it was the site of several wealthy merchant kingdoms, one of which was Saba (Sheba), which prospered from 750 B.C. to 115 B.C. The Sabaens were superseded by the Himyarites who introduced both Judaism and Christianity to the area. The Himyarites were replaced by the invading Christian Ethiopians in 525 A.D., and they in turn were replaced by the Persians in 575.

(3) Islam was introduced to Yemen in the seventh century. In the ninth century the western part of Yemen fell under the authority of the Rassite Dynasty, religious leaders of the Zaydi sect. The Ottomans attempted to exert their rule from 1517 to 1918, but the political foundations embedded by the Rassites in the ninth century prevailed until 1962.

(4) In January 1839 the British captured Aden and later negotiated with the various tribal sheiks a number of treaties which assured Britain's control of the region. The port of Aden was developed as a strategically significant facility for Britain's Indian and Far Eastern trade and naval routes. Aden's importance grew with the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869. By 1914 Aden and the eastern part was dominated by Britain while the Ottoman Turks dominated the western part.

(5) The Turks left the western part of Yemen in 1918 and the Zaydi Imams began their rule of the entire region. Imam Yahya ruled the country with an iron hand from 1918 until 1948 when he was assassinated in a palace coup supported by tribal factions opposed to his tight control. Ahmad, his son, successfully fought a major campaign to regain control over the warlike tribes and remained in power until his death in 1962. Following Imam Ahmad's death, a group of Nasserist, Baathist, and socialist military officers seized power in a coup. Admad's son, Muhammed al-Badr, escaped and enlisted the aid of northern tribesmen to help him regain power. The civil war that ensued was costly for his supporters who were completely overwhelmed by an Egyptian expeditionary force of 70,000. As many as 200,000 Yemenis died in the civil war.

(6) In 1959 following British suggestions for self-determination, six of the eastern states formed the Federation of Arab Emirates (FAE) of the south. The FAE was later renamed the Federation of South Arabia, which Aden joined in 1963. In that same year several groups agitating for political independence from British rule merged to form the National Front for the Liberation of South Yemen (NLF). Under NLF pressure, Britain was forced to grant full independence to Aden and South Yemen and withdraw from the region in 1967. At this time the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen (PDRY) was formed. Between 1967 and 1976 there were several attempted coups as well as an ongoing purge by the party faction controlling the police force of the state. An estimated 25% of the PDRY population fled the country between 1967 and 1972. As late as 1976 an estimated 300,000 former PDRY citizens were reported to still be in the YAR. About 70,000 of them were in refugee camps; the others had been absorbed into YAR society.

(1) Since 1977 unification attempts continued sporadically between the YAR (Sanaa) and the PDRY (Aden). It was doubtful for a long time that progress would result from these efforts, primarily because of the noticeable differences between Sanaa and Aden. Tribal reconciliation has progressed, although one northern tribe, the Hashids, were at odds with the central government. However, in May 1990 the people of the YAR and PDRY formed the Republic of Yemen.

(2) Prior to the recent Gulf War, Yemen abstained from an Arab League solution to condemn Iraq. Yemini and Saudi Arabian troops were facing each other during the Gulf War, but it did not come to any clashes.

(1) The climate of the Tihamat ash Sham coastal plain in the west is semiarid with hot temperatures (Table 84); humidity ranges from 50 to 70%. The average annual rainfall of 13 cm comes in irregular and heavy torrents. There is little variation in the average monthly temperatures, and dew formation as a result of the high humidity is common. Occasional high winds, usually from the southwest and northwest, cause sandstorms and soil erosion.

(2) In the interior foothills, highlands, and plateaus of the western part, there are two major rainfall periods, one from March to May and the other from July to September. The amount of rainfall varies considerably with the altitude, but in general precipitation becomes heavier in the southern sector. As much as 90 cm of rain falls yearly in the highest regions permitting agriculture without irrigation. Rainfall averaging 38 to 51 cm is common in the lower foothills. Snow and frost occur in the winter at high altitudes. Rainfall is abundant and unpredictable, causing several flash floods in the wadis. Days are usually clear and sunny except for the rainy periods of the year. The highlands enjoy a temperate summer and a cool, dry winter.

(3) Temperatures are high throughout the eastern part of the country, particularly in the coastal region (Table 84). The summers run from April to October and are especially hot and humid. Some relief is afforded by the monsoons that occur in July and September. Rainfall is limited. Aden, as an example, has an average annual rainfall of only 13 cm.

(4) The mountainous interior region of the eastern part is relatively cold as compared to the rest of the country. The higher regions of the mountains receive from 51 to 76 cm of rainfall annually. The absence of rain from five years or more in the norther and eastern sections of the country is not uncommon.

(5) The climate of the Wadi Hadramaut (meaning "death is present") in the central part of eastern Yemen is arid and hot. The humidity ranges from 35% in June to 64% in January. During April and May severe dust storms frequently cause crop damage. During April, July, August, and September, short heavy showers fall unpredictably, producing an average of 5 cm of precipitation a year.

(1) The country can be divided into two regions--the coastal area and the mountainous interior. The Tihumat ash Sham coastal plains in the west and the coastal area in the south are flat and sandy and varies from 8 to 12 km in width. Farther inland the country is mountainous with elevations reaching over 3,700 m in the extreme west and gradually tapering to lower heights to the north. The tableland is interspersed with deep valleys and wadis which are usually dry and lack any vegetation. The topography then remains largely the same until it reaches the desert sands of the Rub al Khali Desert of Saudi Arabia. Trafficability is shown in Table 86.

(2) A distinct topographic feature in the central part of south Yemen is the Wadi Hadramaut, a valley that extends eastward to the Gulf of Aden from an area north of the desert of Ramlat as Sabatayn. The wadi runs inland and parallel to the coast for approximately 160 to 190 km. In marked contrast to the surrounding desolate hills and desert, the broad upper and middle parts of the Wadi Hadramaut are relatively fertile and are inhabited by farming communities. The lower eastern part of the wadi turns southward to the sea; the wadi is barren, and largely uninhabited.

(3) The wadis of Hajr, Sayq, and Bana are also reach the Gulf of Aden. Wadis reaching the Red Sea are the Wadis al Ghayl, Zabid, Rasyan, Rima, and Nahar; however, the Wadi Mawr and Wadi Sardud run from inland toward the coast but do not reach the Red Sea. Other wadis stretching inland from west to east are the Wadis Quayf, Shumayb, Jaw, Ubayd, Hurub, and as Sadd.

(1) The YAR Armed Forces were formed in 1948 under the direction of the imam who ruled the country at that time. The military forces were used to quell tribal disputes while providing protection for the imam. Following the overthrow of the imam's son in 1962 and the development of a new form of government, a republican army was organized. The civil war of the late 1960s was fought between the republican army of 10,000 and the northern tribal forces backed by Saudi Arabia's financial support. An Egyptian expeditionary force supported the army. Since that time the army had become a traditional rival of certain tribes in the YAR. Unfortunately, the conflict between the ruling Zaydi officers and the Sunni Shafi tribes had adversely affected political efforts to stabilize the country. The Shafis and political leftists continued to support reunion with the PDRY while the Zaydi faction maintained military control of the YAR from the highest to the lowest levels of government.

(2) Upon gaining independence in November 1967, the four existing security forces of South Yemen, numbering about 10,000 men, became the South Yemen Army. Initially, arrangements were made with Great Britain for assistance in developing the new republic's Armed Forces. In February 1968, however, the Aden government dismissed the British officers attached to the Southern Yemen forces. All British-oriented officers were replaced by Yemeni officers who were politically sympathetic to the National Liberation Front (NLF). The government in Aden subsequently turned to the Soviet Union for military aid and advisors. Soviet equipment, training, and influence are clearly dominant in the present-day Yemeni Armed Forces.

(1) The primary role of the former YAR armed forces was to maintain internal security by defending the central government in Sanaa against internal opposition and external threat. Military service was voluntary for the Air Force and Navy, voluntary and by conscription (three years) for the Army. Total Armed Forces active strength was approximately 53,500 with 22,000 conscripts; there were approximately 40,000 reserves.

(2) The branches of the former PDRY Armed Forces included the Army, Air Force, Navy, and the People's Militia paramilitary force. Service in the PDRY Armed Forces was voluntary and by conscription. Total PDRY Armed Forces active strength was 27,500 with 18,000 conscripts and 45,000 reserves.

Copyright: Reprinted from The Military Balance 1990-91, IISS (London).