Military

(1) Present-day Iran--formerly known as Persia--has been occupied by peoples with a variety of cultures since 6000 B.C. The harsh geography of the region, which is made up of high mountains, forbidding deserts, and huge, uninhabitable salt marshes, discouraged the early formation of a centralized political or economic entity and postponed the growth of urban centers. Persia's recorded history began in approximately 1000 B.C. when small groups of nomaic, horse-riding peoples (Persians, Medes, and Scythians) speaking Indo-European languages began moving into the area from Central Asia. During the sixth century B.C., Cyrus 11 (Cyrus the Great) combined the forces of the Persians with the Medes and set out to establish the most extensive empire in the ancient world.

(2) After the fall of the Persian Empire, Persia was invaded numerous times. Its diverse ethnic blend is the result of waves of foreign invaders who enriched the cultural development of the Persians. This adoption also occurred with Islam. By clinging to their own traditions and values, the Persians established Islam as a universal religion apart from Arab dominance.

(3) During the seventh century A.D. the first and greatest religious split in Islamic history occurred and had a lasting impact on Persia's civic and religious culture. By the 10^th century, almost 90% of Persians were Shiites, the largest Shiite population of any country in the Middle East.

(4) By the early 1900s, popular unrest grew with the presence of many foreigners--British, Russians, American, and Germans--who administered and exploited the country. In February 1921 a bloodless coup d'etat occurred in Tehran, and in December 1925 the new Pahlavi Dynasty and administration was installed. In 1933, Shah Reza Khan Pahlavi declared himself Emperor of the Islamic Republic of Iran (farsi name of country) and two years later it was formally recognized as Iran.

(1) In 1978 domestic turmoil swept the country as a result of religious and political opposition to the shah's rule. Opponents were particularly critical of western influences on programs which did not conform to the fundamentalist interpretation of Shia Islam. In January 1979 the shah, after appointing a fourth Prime Minister in less than a year, bowed to strong opposition and departed the country. The opposition within Iran originally came from two main sources--the left and the liberal National Front--but was eventually overshadowed by the opposition led by the exiled religious leader, the Ayatalloh Khomeini. As support grew for Ayatollah Khomeini toward the end of 1978 and the beginning of 1979, he realized an opportunity to form his own government. While still in exile in Iraq, he established the Islamic Revolutionary Council in anticipation of his return to Iran. In February 1979 the Ayatollah Khomeini returned to Iran and ten days later his armed followers overthrew the government left by the Shah. The Ayatollah then appointed a Prime Minister to form a new government and at the end of March, voters overwhelmingly approved formation of the Islamic Republic of Iran.

(2) On 1 April 1979 an Islamic republic was formed; the government, under Ayatollah Khomeini's autocratic rule, has since been characterized by indiscriminate arrest, torture, execution of opponents, and economic disorder. Political development has been marred by factional fighting, confusion, and continual crises. These crises include the seizure (and eventual release) of 52 members of the US Embassy staff, an undeclared war with Iraq, internal power struggles and unrest between the major minority groups, and support of Shia terrorist groups in the Middle East.

(3) In September 1980 Iraq initiated military action against Iran. This conflict, in varying intensity, continued through August 1988 when a cease fire was agreed to.

(4) When Komeini died in June 1989, President Khamenei became Iran's supreme leader. In July Ali Akbar Hashemi Rafsanfani, former speaker of parliament, was elected president and significant amendments were made to the constitution to resolve conflicts between the Majilis and the Council of Guardians. Iran condemned both Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in August and the subsequent deployment of U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia, but resumed diplomatic relations with Iraq, which dropped its territorial claims against Iran. In the Persian Gulf War (1991), Iran remained officially neutral, but provided refuge for more than 100 Iraqi warplanes, which it later seized. After hositilities between allied and Iraqi forces ended, Iran helped Shiite rebels in southern Iraq against the Baghdad government. Rafsanjani supporters won a parliamentary majority in 1992.

(5) Iran's relations with the West began to improve under Rafsanjani's leadership. The betterment in relations was due in part to Rafsanjani's role in obtaining the release of Western hostages held by pro-Iranian Shiite groups in Lebanon, the last of whom was released in 1992. The Iranian economy fared poorly under Rafsanjani as the national debt grew and inflation rose sharply. Iran continued to deny that is an international sponsor of terrorism and turned aside accusations by both Algeria and Egypt that Iran sponsored terrorist groups in their countries. In June 1993 Rafsanjani was reelected president.

(6) In May 1995 the U.S. cut off all trade and investment with Iran, including the purchase of crude oil by American companies for resale on the world market. The U.S. believed Iran was planning to develop weapons of mass destruction and was supporting international terrorism. Iran found other buyers for its oil among Western countries that did not join the boycott. In January 1996 Iran and Russia concluded a controversial agreement to complete a nuclear power plant at Bushehr which had been begun by West Germany 12 years earlier. Construction started soon after. International critics feared the plant would give Iran the ability to build nuclear weapons. In May 1997 Mohammed Khatami was elected president of Iran by a wide margin. (President Rafsanjani was prohibited by the constitution from seeking a third term.) Khatami, who campaigned for tolerance and social reform, had been minister of culture from 1982 until 1992, when his conservative critics forces him to resign.

(1) The climate of Iran is one of great extremes (Table 1). Seasonal changes are abrupt and clear cut; fall and spring are short. The prevailing winds and mountains combine to produce adequate precipitation in the northwest and along the Caspian Sea, but this moisture is minimal in the eastern deserts. The mountain country of the northwest, particularly the provinces of East and West Azerbaijan, receives sufficient precipitation and mountain runoff to support a variety of crops in the valleys. The four geographical regions of Iran are similar to the climatic subdivisions (Figure 1-3).

(2) The central plateau has little or no precipitation. Slight amounts of rainfall occur in winter and spring but generally not in summer. Thunderstorms may occur in the spring in the northwest corner by Tehran. Nights are generally clear in the summer, with dense clouds about half the time during winter nights.

(3) In the northern portions of the Zagros Mountains, the climate is somewhat different from the central and southern portion of the range. The northern part experiences heavy snow in winter at elevations of 1,500 meters (m) with some thunderstorms in spring. In the south precipitation is generally insignificant in summer and more pronounced in winter and spring. Skies are clear during most days and nights, with less than one-half cloud cover during winter and spring nights. The annual temperatures are warmer in the southern portion of the Zagros.

(4) The Elburz Mountains in the northern regions of the country have similar temperatures and precipitation to those of the northern Zagros. Snow never quite disappears from the northern slopes of the Elburz Mountains. About 650 km to the southeast, however, at elevations of 610 m are some of the hottest and driest areas of the world. Temperatures there compare to the southern Zagros Mountains. Along the Persian Gulf and Caspian coast, oppressively high humidity accompanies temperatures as high as 40° C.

(5) The eastern mountains experience no precipitation in summer with only a slight amount in winter and spring. Summer days are generally cloudless, whereas winter days are cloudy half the time. Some snow and occasional blizzards are possible in winter months.

(6) Two strong summer winds, the "shamal" in the northwest and "wind of 120 days" in the southeast intensify the already hot temperatures. The "wind of 120 days" blows regularly throughout the summer and is the most destructive of the two, reaching 160 km per hour at times.

(1) The central plateau is a barren, largely uninhabited area which occupies a series of closed basins with elevations of 600 to 1,500 m; mostly surrounded by mountains. The interior of the plateau is partly covered by deserts called "dasht," which are among the driest and most barren in the world. Black, muddy, salt marshes called "kavirs," which are separated by barren hills and mountains, are also found in the interior of the plateau. In summer the kavirs become dry causing the salt to crystallize, crack, and upturn into jagged edges, making the area very dangerous for travel. In the winter months when the kavirs are wet, they become quagmires and will halt vehicles, animals, or personnel traffic. The desert is an extensive, arid basin with large expanses of sand dunes crossed by intermittent streams draining into the kavirs. Dasht-e Kavir and the Dasht-e Lut are the most prominent terrain features in the area and are devoid of inhabitants and vegetation. This region is commonly called "the dead heart of Iran." Ironically, the foothills of the surrounding mountains allow habitation, and much of the cultivation of the country is found here. Winter rains flowing from the foothills provide well water for the towns and villages. The high salt content these streams, however, causes the water supply to be of poor quality. The Hamun-e Jaz Murian, a large fresh water lake in the Southwest, exists only during the winter.

(2) The high, rugged Zagros Mountains extend from the Armenian Knot in the extreme northwest and follow the western border town to and along the Persian Gulf, where they join the Makran Range near Pakistan, in the northwest, the elevation varies form 2,100 to 4,100 m with steep and partly forested slopes containing intermittent lowland basins. Lake Urmia is located in one of these basins. Its saline composition is the result of the presence of highly salty soil and the absence of an outlet. Further south, mountains form parallel, dome-like ridges which are oriented northeast to southwest and vary in elevation from 2,500 to 4,000 m. These ridges are separated by deep, narrow, parallel valleys containing mostly perennial streams. The slopes are covered by open shrub forests, and the entire area is sparsely populated. Where the Zagros Mountains join the Makran range in the southern part of Iran, the combined ranges generally run east to west with elevations up to 1,000 m. Most valleys traverse mountains and drain into the Gulf of Oman where a narrow coastal plain stretches along the entire area. Water is generally plentiful all year in the northern portions of the mountains. Numerous streams in this area have fresh water much of the year but may become dry in summer. Wells and water storage cisterns are in or near populated areas. In the southern part of this area, most streams are intermittent, with fresh water becoming salty in the upper parts of the streams and becoming contaminated downstream. Fresh water is scarce along the coast.

(3) The Elburz and Talish Mountains located in the north extend into Afghanistan and have elevations from 2,100 to 3,000 m; in the northeast elevations exceed 4,400 m. Most valleys are narrow and steep-sided. Mount Damavand, an inactive volcano northeast of Tehran, is Iran's highest peak at 5,602 m. The streams draining towards the Caspian Sea flow most of the year, whereas streams draining towards the interior along the southern slopes are generally intermittent. The Caspian lowlands are flat to gently rolling, with dissected plains to the north of the Elburz Mountains. Streams, which are broad and slow-flowing, primarily empty into salt marshes along the coast. Numerous ditches and wide, shallow canals draw water from the streams for irrigation. Most of the area is densely populated; and portions of it are heavily cultivated, with natural vegetation consisting of grass, shrubs, and marsh weeds. The water of the Caspian Sea is drinkable in most places but is usually bitter, and well water on the east coast of the Caspian is brackish.

(4) The eastern mountains consist of hills and high rugged mountains with deeply cut valleys. Elevations can range from 1,200 to 2,750 m. The crest line is generally more than 460 m above adjacent basins and valley floors. Major streams through the valleys flow much of the year. Vegetation consists mostly of thorny shrubs 1 to 2 m high.

(1) The urban sector has grown at a rate three times that of the rural sector. Fifty percent of the population live in urban localities (areas with a population exceeding 5,000). Tehran, the capital, is located at the foot of the Elburz Mountains, a site identified in ancient times as the intersection between the silk route to China and the north-to-south route between the Caspian Sea and the Persian Gulf. Tehran is the industrial center of the country with specific immigration limits on its growth.

(2) Since the mid-1970s the government has been actively seeking an improved distribution of population and decentralization of economic activity. Large industrial centers are being established in Isfahan and Meshed with smaller ones near the cities of Kerman and Zahedan. Since the Khomeini takeover of the government, construction and industrial activities have not been restored to their prerevolutionary levels. This production lag has retarded the growth of the industrial centers, and their development status is presently unknown.

(3) Most of rural Iran is made up of farm villages, localities with populations of 50 or more people. Smaller populated areas are known as hamlets. Compared to the urban dwellers, the standards of living of those in the rural areas are lower, resulting in the desire of many to migrate to the urban areas. Little is known of the effect the new government has had on living conditions in the rural areas.

(1) Staff members of J1--Personnel and Administration-- conducted planning and liaison duties with their counterparts at the ministries of defense, interior, and the Pasdaran (RGC). They also supervised budgeting and financial accountability and the preparation of operational budgets for Majlis (Iranian Parliament) approval for all the armed services.

(2) Personnel of J2--Intelligence and Security--carried out operational control for intelligence planning, intelligence operations, intelligence training, counterintelligence, and security for all elements of the armed forces. They also handled liaison with the komitehs (revolutionary committees) for internal security matters and with the intelligence branch to spy on the regime's adversaries (SAVAMA) for foreign intelligence.

(3) Staff members of J3--Operations and Training--conducted training, operational planning, operations, and communications. The operational planning and operations sections were further divided into eleven subsections for planning and coordination of the services, including: The Iranian Islamic Ground Forces (IIGF), IIGF Aviation, IIGF Chemical Troops, IIGF Artillery Troops, IIGF Engineer Troops, Iranian Islamic Air Force (IIArF), Iranian Islamic Navy (IIN), IIN Aviation, the Pasdaran, the Gendarmerie, and the National Police.

(4) Personnel of J4--Logistics and Support--coordinated and provided liaison for the services. Primary responsibility for logistics and supply rested with the services through the ministries of defense, interior, and the Pasdaran; collection and coordination of supplies and coordination of transportation to the war front, however, remained under the control of J4.

(5) Staff members of J5--Liaison--handled liaison and coordination with nonmilitary organizations and with those military organizations not covered by Joint Staff-level arrangements. Organizations covered by J5 included the Ministry of Defense, Ministry of Interior, Ministry of the Pasdaran, Office of the Prime Minister, Council of Ministers' Secretariat, SDC, Majlis (particularly the Defense and Foreign Affairs Committee), the Foundation for Popular Mobilization, the Foundation for the Disinherited, the Foundation for Martyrs (Bonyad-e Shahid), the Foundation for War Victims, and the Crusade for Reconstruction (Jihad-e Sazandegi or Jihad).

(6) The office of the Staff Judge Advocate provided legal counsel to the Joint Staff and facilitated liaison with the revolutionary prosecutor general and the military tribunal system of the armed forces.

(7) The Political-Ideological Directorate (P-ID) staff members operated the political-ideological bureaus of the Joint Staff components and the political-ideological directorates and bureaus of the operational commands. This office also developed and disseminated political-ideological training materials, in close cooperation with the Foundation for the Propagation of Islam and the Islamic associations of the services. Finally, P-ID members conducted liaison duties between the Joint Staff and the Islamic Revolutionary Court of the Armed Forces.

(8) Members of the Inspectorate General handled oversight functions over the staff components and liaison with the inspectors general of the operational commands. Special Office for Procurements staff members controlled and coordinated procurement of military equipment and supplies from foreign sources through the Ministry of Defense, the Ministry of the Pasdaran, the Ministry of Commerce and Foreign Trade, and the Central Bank of Iran.

(9) In general, operational area commands were subordinate to the Joint Staff, and each armed force component was subordinate to the operational area command in accordance with its own command structure. In 1987 there was only the Western Operational Area Command, which was responsible for the war with Iraq. Established to provide more effective control of wartime operations, this area may have been the precursor of the planned Northern, Southern, and Eastern Operational Area Commands (Figure 1-9).

(1) Below the operational area command were four field headquarters (FHQ), code-named FHQ Karbala, FHQ Hamzeh Seyyed ash Shohada, FHQ Ramadah, and FHQ An Najaf. The FHQs were organized on the model of the Western Operational Area Command except that they did not have naval integration. Subordinate to each FHQ were from three to eight operational sectors. Each operational sector did not necessarily have its own air support unit.

(2) Additional echelons consisting of a commander and staff drawn from the Joint Staff of the participating FHQs could be created during major offensives. The functions of these echelons was to overcome logistical shortcomings, concentrate and deploy forces as needed, and combine the services, particularly the naval forces, in offensive operations.

(1) RGC ground forces are organized in 13 x regional commands. They are loosely organized in battalions of no fixed size, grouped into 21 x infantry and 2 x armored divisions and many independent brigades, including infantry, armored, parachute, special forces (SF), artillery (including surface-to-surface missile (SSM), engineer, air defense (AD), and border defense units. The RGC serves independent or with the Army and has small arms and support weapons from the Army. Furthermore, the RGC ground forces control the Basij (Mobilization of the Oppressed) during civil disturbances.

(2) RGC naval forces (strength unknown) control 5 x island bases to include Al Farsiyah, Halul (oil platform), Sirri, Abu Musa, and Larak. These forces have 40 x Swedish marine boats and control coast defense elements including artillery and SSM sites.

(3) RGC naval forces include 3 Marine brigades.

(1) Known as the Popular Mobilization Army, this volunteer force would provide the bulk of the land forces personnel in the event of mobilization. There are about 1,000,000 men and women available in times of national emergency but they are armed only with small arms. The Basij is organized into regional battalions. There appear to be two types of battalions: Ashura and Gaith. The Tehran regime plans to incorporate the estimated 175 Khorasan tribes and clans into the Basij system. In late 1994, the Basij were noted as employing rank insignia and there is now thought to be a full rank structure up to the level of Brigadier General.

(2) Gendarmerie including the border guard element.

(3) Home guard, which is controlled by the RGC.

(4) Tribal guards. Some 40 x units are reported forming.

(5) Kurds. Kurdish Democratic Party armed wing (Pesh Merga).