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LESSON THREE
TACTICS FOR DESERT OPERATIONS
OVERVIEW
TASK DESCRIPTION:
In this lesson, you will learn to explain how the desert environment affects deception operations. You will learn how to plan for and explain the methods of employment when conducting operations against the enemy in desert operations. You also will learn to describe tips for fighting in the desert environment.
LEARNING OBJECTIVE:
| TASKS: | Explain how the desert environment affects deception operations. Plan for and explain the methods of employment when conducting operations against the enemy in desert operations. Describe tips for fighting in the desert environment. |
| CONDITIONS: | You will have information from FM 90-3 and Newsletter No. 90-7, Special Edition, AUG 90. |
| STANDARDS: | Explain how the desert environment affects deception operations, plan for and explain the methods of employment when conducting operations against the enemy in desert operations, and describe tips for fighting in the desert environment in accordance with FM 90-3 and Newsletter No. 90-7, Special Edition, AUG 90. |
| REFERENCES: | The material contained in this lesson was derived from the following publications:
FM 90-3 |
INTRODUCTION
This lesson explains how the desert environment affects tactical operations plans and methods of employment against the enemy. The environment of the desert, together with its effects on personnel and equipment requires some modification to tactics and procedures described in other How-to-Fight manuals.
PART A - TACTICAL OPERATIONS IN THE DESERT ENVIRONMENT
Important physical characteristics that influence desert operations are:
- Terrain.
- Lack of both natural and man-made combat service support assets.
- Lack of concealment.
- Excellent observation and fields of fire.
Advantages or disadvantages accruing from these characteristics are equally applicable to an enemy force. This lesson describes how these characteristics influence tactical operations.
1. Objectives.
2. Mobility.
a. Tactical Mobility. Tactical mobility is the key to successful desert operations. Obstacles and areas such as lava beds or salt marshes, which prevent surface movement, do exist. However, most deserts permit true two-dimensional movement by ground troops similar to that of a naval task force at sea. Speed of execution is essential and requires self contained all-mechanized or airmobile forces with excellent communications.
b. Natural Desert Obstacles. A force may use natural desert obstacles for a defensive position where the enemy cannot turn from either flank. However, these are rare. For example, only five natural defensive positions exist over 3,800 kilometers west of El Alamein in Egypt. In any case, an attacking force capable of airmobile or extended ground operations can usually find a way over or around an obstacle. Then, it can bypass the defending force, contain it, or take it from the rear.
Limited cross-country capability of supply vehicles, (especially that of water tankers or those towing trailers), combined with longer lines of communication, may influence avenues of approach of a large force. The limited hard-surface routes that do exist will be necessary for resupply.
c. Hot Barren Mountains. Use dismounted infantry in areas where terrain, such as mountains, limits vehicle movement, or is sometimes used to establish strongpoints and blocking positions.
(1) Employment of Infantry. Infantry is the basic maneuver force in hot barren mountains. Valleys and foothills can confine mechanized infantry, but their ability to dismount and move on foot enables them to reach almost anywhere. You can use airmobile infantry extensively. Consider modifying the TOE of infantry units operating in barren mountains. You may not need a strong antitank platoon. However, infantry require extra radars and radios for the number of observation posts and separate positions that they may expect to occupy.
(2) Tanks and Armored Cavalry. Hot barren mountains are not a good environment for tank and armored cavalry because they cannot maximize their mobility, flexibility, and firepower.
(3) Mobility and Maneuver. Avenues of approach at ground level are few with limited roads or trails that require extensive engineer effort to maintain. Off road trafficability varies from relatively easy to very difficult. Most movement and maneuver in this type of terrain is by air or on foot. Avoid unnecessary vertical foot or vehicle movement. Rock slides and avalanches, although not as common as in high cold mountains, do exist and can restrict movement.
3. Observation and Fields of Fire.
The normally flat desert terrain permits direct-fire weapons to shoot to their maximum range. However, the desert is not absolutely flat, so position your weapons to provide mutual support like in temperate climates. When preparing defensive positions, you must inspect the positions from the enemy point of view to maximize available cover and concealment. Figure 3-1 shows a poor observation technique, while Figure 3-2 points out an excellent observation technique.
Figure 3-1. Poor Observation Technique.
Figure 3-2. Observe From Height If Possible.
a. Visibility. Open terrain and generally clear atmosphere offer excellent long range visibility. However, at certain times of the day the heat may limit or distort visibility. Observation posts on dominant terrain can see dust from helicopters flying NOE from a distance of 20-30 kilometers and they can easily identify columns of vehicles at more than five kilometers. Often the first indications are flashes from windshields or optics, rather than the accompanying dust column. The ideal observation position has the sun behind it and is as high as possible to lessen the effects of mirage and heat radiation from the ground. When there is no usable dominant terrain available, the only means of observation may be from an aeroscout, or the tank commander may limit your short range observation.
b. Fires. Observation of fires, especially direct fires, may be difficult. High-velocity, direct-fire weapons can throw up considerable dust clouds, and calcium chloride distributed in front of a position also may lessen observation. Burst-on-target corrections may be almost impossible. Crews may have to use flank observers to report elevation and azimuth errors. Dust may hang in the air following the impact of ranging rounds. This may complicate the correction of field artillery fires, especially those of larger pieces. Thus, forward observers should place initial rounds beyond a target rather than short of the target.
4. Maneuver.
Maneuver must be at the maximum tactical speed permitted by the terrain and dust conditions, using whatever cover is available. Even a ten-foot sand dune will cover and conceal a tank. Air defense coverage is always necessary because aircraft can spot movement very easily due to accompanying dust clouds.
To achieve surprise, you must maneuver in conditions that prevent observation-at night, behind smoke, or during dust and sandstorms. It is possible, although difficult, to control maneuver during sandstorms. With favorable winds (supplemented by smoke if necessary), units can attack or maneuver behind a sandstorm. In certain situations, there may be no alternative to maneuver in terrain where the enemy can see at long range. Thus, you maneuver at best speed, while field artillery or close air support aircraft place suppressive fires on suspected enemy positions.
5. Reconnaissance and Security.
Air cavalry, the major reconnaissance means, must guard against ambush by ground troops located at their own altitude or even higher. Security of units must include observation, especially at night, of all avenues of approach including those within capabilities of skilled mountaineers. Consider using remote sensors (REMS) and radar for the security of the unit.
a. Desert Reconnaissance. The desert affords units almost complete freedom of maneuver, with the ability and requirement to see great distances. This requires aggressive and continuous reconnaissance and constant all-round security. Up-to-date terrain reconnaissance is necessary because many desert maps are inaccurate. Use all ground and air means of reconnaissance to the limits of the unit's area of interest. Units seldom employ route reconnaissance, but if required, you must expect to operate over extended distances. Zone reconnaissance is frequent, and zones are normally larger than in temperate climates. Area reconnaissance missions and techniques are unlikely to alter significantly from those in more conventional terrain.
b. Unit Security. Units must always provide for all-round security. When a force is in a defensive position, pay particular attention to all-round surveillance and gaps between units. The threat of enemy air attack is always present. Therefore, commanders must stress passive and active air defense measures. Ground patrols, radar, sensors, and aerial and ground mounted surveillance devices provide additional means of security at night and during periods of limited visibility. Use passive devices whenever possible.
c. Ground Scouts. Ground scouts normally move two to four kilometers to the front or flanks of leading teams, depending on terrain. They depend on field artillery or mortars, and possibly attack helicopters, for immediate support. This distance allows time for squads to dismount observers and send them forward. Distance also gives the commander time and space to react to their information without inhibiting the movement of their parent unit. Patrols perform most often mounted, dismounting only when necessary to accomplish the mission.
d. Aeroscouts. Aeroscouts flying NOE cannot necessarily find the enemy more easily than ground observers. Stationary targets are the most difficult to see because there is little to draw the observer's attention. Thus, aeroscouts must use caution to avoid blundering into enemy air defense weapons. One method is "dismount and scan." Starting at a distance of five to ten kilometers from the area of interest, the aircraft lands and an observer dismounts and scans the area for suspected enemy. The observer and pilot must remain in contact, using a portable radio. They repeat the dismount and scan process at varying intervals, until they make contact with the enemy.
e. Observation Posts. Position observation post in pairs, as far apart as possible to permit accurate resection. Also place them at different heights to avoid the possibility of dust clouds blocking the vision of both simultaneously. It is best to emplace observation posts by helicopter at night. Drop the observers off at some distance from the designated position. The observers move the remainder of the distance on foot to reduce the chances of enemy observation.
f. Radars. Radars may be valuable during midday heat haze on flat terrain when optical vision becomes hopelessly distorted. Optics are almost useless in sandstorms. Image intensification is of limited value in sandstorms, and at night will depend on the phase of the moon. If there is no moon, you will have to use artificial illumination outside the field of view of the system. Since thermal imagery devices depend on the difference between ambient temperature and equipment temperature, they are more useful at night than in the day.
g. Patrols. Patrols perform mostly mounted, dismounting only when necessary to accomplish the mission.
6. Employment of Army Aircraft.
Army aircraft operate in the desert much the same as in temperate climates, within limits imposed by enemy long range observation and air defense fires. Expect some degradation in aircraft performance due to environmental effects. Although, altitude and rugged terrain slightly inhibited helicopters, you can use helicopter units of all types. Density and altitude will degrade payloads and endurance. Winds are turbulent with considerable fluctuations in air flow strength and direction, particularly on the lee side of mountains. This, combined with terrain, produces extra strain on crews as they have little margin for error. Train flight crews in these conditions before using them for operational flying.
7. Navigation.
Navigation by men on foot is a matter of making best use of available maps, together with the lensatic compass and a pocket altimeter. Air photographs can help, though, you should scale and contour them.
a. Navigation Effectiveness. A force equipped with modern, sophisticated navigation means, can record positions with errors of less than one percent. A force not equipped with such systems may find navigation difficult, depending on the number of visible and known terrain features, and the reliability of local maps. Frequently, you must appoint a person qualified in celestial navigation, in each company team and battalion task force whose primary task is navigation. Thoroughly brief soldiers on the type of terrain and the general environment they will encounter, to include
- water sources, if any.
- landmarks or significant permanent terrain features.
- friendly and enemy areas of operation.
- prevailing winds.
This information will assist reconnaissance units or individuals who become separated from their units, to navigate.
b. Navigation Aids. These vary in sophistication and complexity and may include:
(1) Sun Compasses. As shown in Figure 3-3, you can use sun compasses, as well as sextants, on moving vehicles (both require accurate time keeping).
Figure 3-3. Simple Sun Compass In Use.
(2) Lensatic Compasses. On a vehicle, this compass is almost impossible to use with accuracy. It is not reliable near quantities of metal, and underground mineral deposits can have an effect on it as well. To use the lensatic compass, you must know individual compass error and local deviation.
(3) Gyro Compass. This compass is an efficient gun azimuth stabilizer used on fairly flat ground. It is, in fact, a gyroscope, useful for maintaining direction as it is.
(4) Fires. Planned tracer fire assists in maintaining bearings, and field artillery and mortar concentrations. Use smoke (preferable) or illumination at night to check on estimated locations.
(5) Distance Recorders. It is essential to record distance moved, which may be done by using a vehicle odometer.
(6) RF Beacons. RF Beacons, particularly useful for aircraft navigation, also can permit the enemy to locate friendly forces. You may have to place them in open desert with unit locations marked at certain distances and bearings from them.
(7) Radars. If the position of a radar is known, it can measure range and bearings and therefore position of a vehicle.
(8) Homers. You can use homers in any terrain, although, to a greater degree, they suffer from the same disadvantage as RF beacons.
(9) Aerial Photographs. The advantage of aerial photographs, particularly to aviators, is their ability to show up-to-date views of the variation in color and texture of the desert soil.
(10) Pocket Altimeter. The pocket altimeter is a barometer, measuring height by means of varying air pressure. If a navigator can establish his location in the horizontal plane by resection on one point, the altimeter tells him his height and thus his exact position. Since fluctuations of air pressure affect the instrument, you must reset it at every known altitude.
(11) Lights. Pilots may have difficulty navigating at night, especially if several aircraft are operating in the same area. It may be necessary to provide aircraft with hooded rear facing navigation lights. Troops on the ground can assist aerial navigation with visual communication, such as lights in varying quantities, patterns, or colors. You also may need radio beacons placed on the highest available ground.
8. Identification.
Identification Friend or Foe (IFF) is a problem for ground troops and even more difficult for aircraft. National identifying marks are not sufficient, so you need to have a thorough knowledge of the vehicles used by both the enemy and allied forces. The force should have a standing IFF operating procedure that allows for daily changes. You can use systems that include:
- Tape markings, white or multicolored.
- Colored pennants in different daily positions. Don't fly these from antennas as they may degrade radio performance. Unless all vehicles carry them, they may assist the enemy to identify headquarters vehicles. They may be of negligible value in very dusty conditions.
- A commonly known radio frequency for IFF only.
9. Communications.
a. Wire. Maneuver units are unlikely to be in one place very long, so wire communication are not extensively used, except in rear areas. If you use wire, bury it to a minimum depth of 12 inches to avoid damage from track vehicles or shell fire. Keep plenty of slack in the line to allow for sand shift. Keep accurate map plots of buried wire. If you must use overhead wire, mount it on posts erected in the form of tripods to avoid falling during severe wind storms. Blowing sand can damage insulation, so continued maintenance is necessary.
b. Radio. Radio is the primary means of communications in desert operations due to speed of movement and distances involved. You may need to use air or ground relays during the hottest periods of the day as VHF (FM) radios can have their range degraded by as much as 50 percent.
Some areas of desert are "dead spots," usually due to certain minerals below the surface. These areas are unacceptable for command posts. You must establish communications with all subordinate units from a newly selected position before headquarters moves from the old position.
c. Liaison Officers and Messengers. Use air or vehicle mounted liaison officers or messengers if units are stationary or under listening silence. They should be proficient in navigation and equipped to destroy the message if liable to capture.
d. Pyrotechnics and Sound. Pyrotechnics are usually more effective in temperate climates. Although, heat mirages and dust storms may impair or restrict their use. Heliographs (signal mirrors) may be useful because they are directional and aid security. Sound communications are usually impractical due to distance, vehicular noise, and storms. Yet, you can use sound for local alarm systems.
e. Visual Signals. You can use colored flags with prearranged meanings as a means of communication in the flat open terrain of the desert.
10. Electronic Warfare.
Electronic warfare is important in all environments, but is particularly important in the desert for the following reasons:
- Radio systems are by far the most important means of communication and the most susceptible to jamming or monitoring. You may find it more difficult to position antennas where they will efficiently cover the area of friendly forces yet will not radiate to the enemy.
- Some of the other means of intelligence (civilian population or prisoners of war) may not be useful because of scarcity, or their information already is out of date due to the inability and speed of the forces employed.
The appropriate How-to-Fight manuals describe the electronic warfare measures that each level of command can take.
11. Tactical Deception Operations.
Division or corps normally plan large scale deception operations. However brigade level, or lower, may employ operations of short range and intermediate effect to achieve tactical advantages. Execution of large or long-range operations normally is centrally controlled. This helps prevent friendly units from blundering into deception efforts such as dummy positions, minefields, or specially-constructed installations. Individuals and units contribute to the deception effort by maximizing OPSEC to prevent alerting the enemy to our real operations.
The use of deception depends very much on timing. You must allow sufficient time for the deceptive information to sink through the enemy intelligence system for his maneuver units to react. On the other hand, too much time may allow him to see through the deception, thereby ruining the whole plan. Described below are certain deception techniques that you can use in desert warfare.
a. Dummy Installations. Preparation of dummy installations can conceal operational plans to deceive the enemy about the real location of potential targets, such as POL dumps or railheads. Camouflage dummy installations and protect them with a few air defense weapons. Otherwise, the enemy will suspect that they are phony. You can ignite flammable material after an attack to simulate damage. Also, you can simulate activity by varying locations and sizes of dummy supply stocks daily and by varying wheel tracks at intervals to simulate vehicular activity.
b. Damage Simulation. You can simulate damage to induce the enemy to leave important targets alone. Paint ragged patterns with tar and coal dust on the walls and roof of a building and place covers over them. Stack debris nearby and wire any unused portions for demolition. During an attack, remove covers under cover of smoke generators, scatter debris, and blow demolitions. Enemy air photography will subsequently disclose a building too badly damaged for use. Soldiers using the building after an attack must guard against heat emissions after dark and then must take care to control electromagnetic emissions.
c. Phony Minefields. Use phony minefields to simulate live fields.
WARNING
DO NOT EMPLACE LIVE MINES IN A PHONY MINEFIELD.
Disturb the ground so it appears that mines have been emplaced. Mark boundaries with appropriate warnings. Don't allow any personnel or vehicles into the minefield area. You can camouflage or make a real minefield appear phony. Once you settle a real minefield, run a wheel or a specially-made circular wooden tank track marker through the field, leaving track or tire marks to lure the enemy on to live mines. Do not sow antipersonnel mines in such a field until you have laid the track marks. Another method is to leave gaps in a mechanically laid field, run vehicles through the gaps, and then close them with hand-laid mines without disturbing the track marks.
d. Decoys. Use decoys to confuse the enemy about the strength of friendly forces and unit identity. Conceal unit movement by positioning decoys after the real unit has moved. The degree of accuracy necessary depends on the range of enemy surveillance, but use some metal in each model to produce heat emissions in the cooler hours. Also, you can include a few electromagnetic sources to deceive electronic support units. Move models at intervals so they are not in the same position on successive air photographs.
(1) Stationary Vehicles and Aircraft. Build stationary vehicles and aircraft using lumber, burlap, paint, and parts of destroyed equipment. Use sophisticated flexible foam rubber models, If available. Make vehicle tracks entering or exiting decoy positions, as appropriate, to deceive photographic interpreters.
(2) Mobile Decoys. Mobile decoys serve the same purpose as stationary decoys. They have the advantage of being more lifelike and the disadvantage of requiring more labor and personnel. Use mobile tank decoys constructed on support vehicles to cause the enemy to
- believe friendly forces are attacking or withdrawing.
- conceal the fact that a real unit has moved.
- or give an exaggerated idea of tank strength.
Also you may camouflage real tanks as support vehicles.
(3) Field Artillery Decoys. You can construct field artillery decoys in the same manner as described above for mobile decoys. Due to enemy target acquisition capabilities, you can also simulate fire by flash or sound ranging. If simulators are not available, suspend explosive charges one meter from the ground and detonate to simulate field artillery fire. If the explosives fail to give enough flash or detonation, you can also use photoflash, filtered to the appropriate color. Confuse the enemy about the location of the real firing unit by simulating fire when the real field artillery fires.
(4) Counterfire Intelligence. You may get counterfire intelligence from dummy positions if the enemy returns fire. Inform division artillery. Personnel manning dummy artillery positions should have foxholes for protection from counterfire.
(5) Decoy Unit Positions. Place decoy unit positions carefully. Do not make them unusually obvious. Place them in locations where the enemy would expect to find a unit of the type copied. Dig shallow fighting positions to represent infantry positions. Make them approximately one foot deep and filled with brush to deepen the shadow and give them an illusion of depth. They also must give a camouflaged impression and have overhead cover. Constant maintenance is necessary. Like decoy vehicles, there must be some form of activity simulation in the area.
e. Noise. Use noise to create a false impression of strength or movement, or to lure an enemy force into an area where fires can be concentrated against them. Noise, particularly effective at night because it carries farther, is affected by wind strength and direction. You also can record noise. For example, a line of powerful tape recorders can easily simulate a column of tanks or helicopters on the move, but it is essential that the amplifier hum is not heard. Deliberate natural noise (the clang of a dropped can or a closing tank hatch) can easily be overdone by constant repetition, possibly producing a situation quite different to that intended.
f. Dust. You can take advantage of the normal dust column raised by movement. Make a fake helicopter landing zone, equipped with decoy aircraft. Make it more realistic by having a jeep tow chains between the "aircraft," giving the impression of aircraft hovering close to the ground. A few real aircraft flying NOE can give the impression of much activity.
12. Special Operations.
Because desert operations involve wide areas, you can usually find gaps in enemy defenses that small units can slip through to conduct raids, sabotage installations and pipelines, gather intelligence, and effect liaison with friendly irregular forces.
a. Mission Factors. In addition to the mission, consider the following factors before conducting a special operation:
- Local natives, attitudes, possibilities of support (including guides), languages spoken, payment.
- Cover plan to divert suspicion from local inhabitants.
- The terrain cover, course to follow to and from the objective, maps and air photographs available.
- Method of entry and exit. The return route should be as different as possible from the initial route.
- Climatic peculiarities expected.
- Size of the force.
- Air support.
- Supplies the force must carry, methods and locations of prestocking and resupply if any.
- Medical support.
- Special equipment and weapons.
- Communications.
b. Personnel. Select personnel for special operations with the utmost care. Officers should be
- ranger qualified.
- experienced in different desert terrain.
- able to speak the local language.
If not, officers, and when practical, similarly qualified enlisted men, should have considerable training in living off the land away from civilized communities.
Each member of the team must be a skilled driver with experience in desert terrain and an expert on all appropriate types of small arms. A significant number of the group must be capable of operating all of its communication systems. A smaller number should be qualified in first aid. You also must include mechanics. Some personnel must be proficient in dead reckoning and celestial navigation by day and night. All must be physically fit.
Personnel who have the technical training described above, can gain special operations training by trips into the desert, held by friendly troops. These teams require over 1,600 kilometers of experience across unmapped featureless terrain before they will be ready to operate against the enemy in his own territory.
c. Teams. Use fully mounted teams. Keep the number of vehicles small to minimize the probability of mechanical malfunctions and bogging down. Light, simple cargo vehicles are favorable to track armored vehicles, which are complicated to repair and use too much fuel.
Infrequently, teams can parachute in, fly in by helicopter, or move in by boat or submarine if the objective is near a coastline. Helicopters are not advisable for general use in special operations. They are extremely difficult to hide and use large quantities of fuel, although, they have the advantage of speed.
d. Supplies. Carry sufficient rations, ammunition, fuel, and water so the team can perform as a self-contained unit for the operation. Weigh each item out to the pound. Limit water, due to its weight and volume, to the medically-advised minimum according to the environment. You will require extra water for radiators. Equally load all vehicles. Daily consumption will lighten each truck load so limited overloading is permissible at the start, especially if the first few days of the operation are over trails or known areas. Although, you can prestock items in certain locations before or during an operation, this should be rare because it may compromise security.
e. Weapons. Choice of weapons to carry will depend on the mission, but at least arm all vehicles with a mounted machine gun. You also may include heavy and light antitank weapons and shoulder fired air defense weapons.
f. Radios. You will need radio communication between vehicles and with the force headquarters that directs the operation. Radios should be capable of operating from vehicle or dry batteries. Within the team, communications should normally be by voice, or hand, or flag signals. Although, you can use flares or radio in an emergency. Send messages from higher headquarters on a variable frequency and time schedule. Don't require the team to reply except in extreme circumstances.
g. Movement. Move mostly by night; it is cooler and easier to navigate. Rest crews under camouflaged vehicles during the day. If attacked from the air when stationary, personnel not manning vehicle-mounted air defense weapons should scatter from the vehicles, which will be the main targets. As a first priority, remove the water supplies from any vehicles hit by enemy fire.
h. Surprise. On arrival in the objective area, spend the maximum available time on reconnaissance. The team must rely on surprise to achieve its mission.
13. Combat Support for Desert Operations.
A force operating in the desert must be capable of meeting any known or foreseen weapons system. It must be a balanced force with combat support and combat service support. It must be a combined arms team. Although, you find principles of combat support operations in How-to-Fight manuals dealing with a specific arm or service, there are some techniques you must modify or emphasize in the desert.
a. Field Artillery. You must provide close and continuous field artillery support for all levels of the force, due to the fluid nature of desert operations and the possibilities for excellent enemy observation. Field artillery pieces must be at least as mobile as the force they are supporting. Crews must be proficient in direct fire and prepared to defend against a ground attack.
(1) Rapid Displacement. Due to the threat of immediate counter-battery fire, field artillery units must be ready to move into position, fire, and rapidly displace to another position. A battery should be prepared to displace several times per day.
(2) Survey Devices. Equip field artillery units employed in desert operations with the most sophisticated survey devices available. Manual systems are slower and less accurate, thus affecting tactical employment and reducing response time.
(3) Observation Posts. Emplace field artillery observation posts on the highest available ground. In low cloud conditions, stagger them in height. Predicted fire may be inaccurate due to rapidly changing weather conditions, making observed fire a more sure method for achieving the desired results.
Enemy air defense may make aerial observation extremely difficult, so ground observers make most adjustments of fire. Weather conditions can change rapidly in the morning and evening (and occasionally at other times of the day), affecting the accuracy of fires. Therefore, you must recompute weather corrections frequently.
(4) Gun Positions. It may be difficult to find good gun positions at lower altitudes due to crest clearance problems, so operations often use high-angle fire. The best weapons are light field artillery and mortars. They are airmobile and troops can manhandle them into positions as high as possible.
b. Air Defense Artillery. Because of the wide open spaces characteristic of many deserts of the world and the large areas associated with desert operations, you should reinforce desert fighting forces with more than the normal complement of air defense weapons. Still, you may not have enough dedicated air defense systems to fully cover the force. When this is the case, commanders must be especially careful when establishing air defense priorities in view of long lines of communication and the tendency to maneuver over large areas. In any event, all units must include a scheme for countering air attack in their battle plans. This requires both active and passive measures.
Armored and mechanized infantry division air defense weapons generally mount on tracked vehicles. However, this does not necessarily apply to corps medium altitude air defense units. Nevertheless, corps surface-to-air missile (SAM) units have considerably greater ranges, and have more sophisticated early warning and control systems. Thus commanders should employ some corps units well forward. These weapons will have to displace by section to ensure continuous coverage.
Automatic weapon units have limited range and require careful control of ammunition due to their high cyclic rates of fire. They are, however, extremely versatile, so you may employ them in direct-fire ground support roles if necessary. They are useful when employed with highly mobile forces and they can deploy very quickly in their planned air defense role.
Locate air defense artillery units close to elements of supported units to provide for ground defense. When the supported unit moves, the air defense unit also must move, which requires careful coordination so as not to delay the supported unit.
Like field artillery, self-propelled weapons in this environment, have limited use. Although, you may use some in valleys. Airmobile towed weapons allow employment throughout the mountainous area of operations.
c. Engineers. Construction, improvement, and repair routes, and their denial to the enemy, is a major task for engineers, even in an airmobile force. Mining is important due to the limited number of routes. To overcome the problem of flash floods, lines of communication require constant drainage, and possibly bridging.
Engineer operations in the desert are similar to those in temperate climates. Although, you have to cross fewer natural terrain obstacles. Depending on the terrain anticipated in the operations area, you may have to obtain a dry-gap crossing capability from corps support units. Important tasks for engineers in desert operations include:
- Finding, developing, and if necessary destroying water supplies. This is a high priority task.
- Map making.
- Construction of obstacles.
- Construction of logistic activities and routes.
- Construction of field fortifications.
- Construction of airfields and helicopter landing pads.
(1) Development of Water Supplies. Water supply is the single most important mission of engineers in the desert. The search for sources requires continuous, intensive reconnaissance. Engineers may obtain water by drilling beds of dry water courses, or by deepening dry wells. Once water is found, make it potable for storage or transport. Water purification trucks may be high priority targets, and barely enough for the task. So, augment any force operating in the desert with water supply units, including well drilling, water purification and water distillation teams, and transportation.
(2) Destruction or Denial of Water Supplies. Destruction of enemy water sources can reduce his efficiency to a degree that he becomes militarily ineffective. Known sources and targets such as pipelines are priority targets for air attack. In retrograde operations, friendly water sources may be mined, booby-trapped, or contaminated (a distillation of old animal bones can be used). Poison is forbidden by the Geneva Convention. Exercise care to ensure no one takes action that would deny water to friendly forces. Also, you must consider the political impact on the local population of water source destruction or denial before you make the decision to do this. In any case, you should not destroy water sources without approval of higher headquarters.
(3) Map Making. Maps of any useful tactical scale do not cover large areas of the world's deserts. The maps that exist are frequently inaccurate, increasing the difficulties of navigation. Therefore, engineer topographic companies need to augment the force to prepare, print, and distribute up-to-date maps of the operational area. They can use USAF and Army aviation support to produce grid maps from aerial photography of the area forward of the line of contact.
(4) Obstacles. Due to the mobility inherent in desert operations, obstacles must be extensive and used in conjunction with each other and any natural obstacles. You can easily bypass isolated obstacles.
(5) Mines. You can easily emplace mines in a sand desert where blowing sand will effectively conceal evidence of their emplacement. However, you must consider the following potential problem areas:
- For effectiveness, you need a large number of mines.
- Sand can cause malfunctioning.
- Shifting sand can cause mine drift.
- An excessive accumulation of sand over the mines can degrade performance.
- Sand may be blown away, thus exposing the mines.
(6) Antitank Ditches. In suitable terrain, use antitank ditches that exceed the vertical step of enemy main battle tanks. Because you cannot conceal antitank ditches, you must dig them so they do not outline a defensive front or flank. They have the advantage of not requiring as much logistic support as mine fields. You must cover them by observation and fire to prohibit enemy infantry using them as ready-made trenches.
(7) Construction of Logistic Activities and Routes. Because of the limited off-road mobility of most combat service support vehicles, considerable engineer effort may be necessary to construct and maintain routes forward to maneuver units. Use local resources, such as ground or salt marsh mud laid on sand. Track vehicles should not use these routes since they could easily tear them up.
d. Combat Intelligence. The importance of intelligence sources may differ from what you expect in more conventional areas. You must interrogate prisoners of war immediately because the flexibility of operations will rapidly make their information out of date. You encounter very few civilians in desert operations. Therefore, unless you can corroborate it, treat any information they give, with caution. Military intelligence teams located in the area of operations can determine if these PWs and civilians are in fact what they say they are or infiltrators sent to harass the rear area and commit acts of sabotage. Electronic support measures are a major source of intelligence in desert warfare. Enemy activity, or the lack of it, is a good source of information. Punctual, accurate reports by all sources, both positive and negative, are necessary.
e. Military Police. Military police will continue their combat support well forward in desert operations, although over increasingly extended distances. Of special importance will be MP tactical and physical security over extended lines of communication such as petroleum pipelines and viaducts transporting water over long distances. The importance of these items demands both active and passive measures, including overflight by returning aircraft or overwatch by convoy movements. You must augment security at storage sites for water, food, POL and ammunition, which historically have been principal targets of enemy action. The indefinite conditions and number of roadways will require increased control points to direct traffic, redirect stragglers, and provide information to expedite movement forward to the fighting elements.
Military police are especially valuable when the combat commander must employ concentration and economy of force in the face of the enemy to gain a favorable combat ratio. MP's can secure the roadways, enforce priority movement, and prevent delay of elements undertaking passage to blocking or defensive positions.
Because of the frequent interdictions of mountainous roadways, military police will experience multiple defile operations. They must employ temporary traffic signs to expedite traffic movement to the front. Expect the number of stragglers to increase in this environment. Because of difficulty in resupply, the supply points for water, POL, food, and ammunition will become especially lucrative targets for enemy attack. Rear area security elements of the military police must develop plans for relief and augmenting base defense forces.
f. U.S. Air Force support. You can expect USAF tactical fighter bomber and airlift aircraft to support a U.S. Army force fighting in the desert. Close air support by USAF tactical fighter bombers is most important in desert warfare because of lack of concealment, large areas of operations, and mobility of forces employed by each side. In the desert environment, air forces can locate targets easier because visual observation normally is far superior to that in temperate climates, and ground movement is more readily apparent. Lack of covered approaches, may handicap air attacks, but increased visibility permits engagement from standoff ranges. When flying close air-support missions, pilots must be able to differentiate between enemy and friendly forces. Use panels or other visual or electronic identification means to assist in identification.
Because commanders will likely use extended lines of communication in desert operations, they should use USAF theater tactical airlift whenever possible. This is particularly true of resupply operations conducted over considerable distances from a lodgement area to forward trains areas.
Planning for air support must be as detailed as time permits to determine mission and armament requirements, time over target, and method of control. Use the joint air-ground operations system (AGOS) to request and coordinate the use of U.S. Air Force tactical air support.
g. U.S. Navy Support. When U.S. Navy gunfire, or Navy or Marine aircraft support the force, elements of a Marine air and naval gunfire liaison company (ANGLICO) are attached to the Army ground forces. The mission of the company is to support an Army division by providing control and liaison agencies for the employment of this support.
Platoons and teams can advise commanders on capabilities, limitations, and employment of naval gunfire and USN or USMC air support. Normally, you place platoons with brigades or higher headquarters, and place air and gunfire support teams with battalion task forces. Although the company has organic vehicles and some combat service support capability, its elements generally require some additional administrative and logistic assistance from the supported unit. You also may have to provide additional communications equipment to net with Army units.
14. Combat Service Support.
Supply of water and ammunition and the evacuation of wounded, especially if helicopters cannot land, can complicate operations. Unit or civilian porters may have to transport water and ammunition using A frames or other suitable devices, or even animals such as camel or mule. Lines of communication can be vulnerable and supply speed slow because of distances between units. Except for class V and sometimes class III, resupply should be at night for security. When planning a desert operation, consider the following factors.
a. Water. A great demand for water can tie down quantities of transport and may involve laying pipelines. Water is vital, so every operation estimate must consider the water situation. Water carries a higher priority than food. Demand for water is about nine quarts per day per man as a minimum and sometimes more. Soldiers should carry three canteens and every effort should be made to prestock water in positions or along routes.
b. Transportation. Air transportation provides the best mobility in mountain operations. However, weather, enemy activity or scarcity of landing sites may limit air transportation, so there should be an alternative means available. Terrain permitting, use high mobility wheel vehicles off main routes and as far forward as possible. Beyond the limits of wheel transport, you may have to use animals (which may need acclimatizing) or porters, as an alternative.
c. Employment of Trains. Brigade trains should locate near an airstrip that can handle USAF tactical air lift. These trains are an obvious target for enemy air attack or artillery, or raids by enemy deep patrols, so you must have adequate air defense and a coordinated area defense plan in place. You must place guards on all dominating terrain around the area. Equip them with ground surveillance radars and STANO devices. Also, you should employ patrols outside the perimeter.
d. Supply. Essential mobility and freedom of tactical maneuver tie entirely into the ability of the logistic chain to supply maneuver units. Two alternatives are available: increase the rate of supply, probably requires more vehicles, or prestock, which ties units to the stocked area. Supply points may be set up in the brigade trains area to operate distribution points for class I, III, and V. However, where you have limited routes, you may need to resupply totally by air from the DISCOM area.
The variations in demand of supplies from those in temperate climates are very much the same as those on a desert floor. Some important supply considerations are:
(1) Class I. It is often impractical to supply hot rations from mess trucks, especially when the unit is subject to enemy air reconnaissance or target acquisition devices. Feeding from canned combat rations is the usual method of troop feeding. Mess trucks are not practical in this terrain. Either eat food cold or use can heaters. Each soldier should carry one day's emergency ration in case the daily resupply does not arrive.
(2) Class II. There is a high demand for footwear. Expect combat boots to last approximately two weeks in the harsh rocky terrain.
(3) Class III. Expect daily requirements for POL in desert operations to be high. Estimates for POL requirements should consider large scale maneuver inherent in desert operations. Individual vehicle consumption will be greater than normal. Aircraft fuel requirements are greater, but it should be possible for much of their refueling and servicing to take place well to the rear where resupply is easy.
(4) Class V. Estimates of ammunition requirements should reflect the heavy level of commitment that you can anticipate in desert operations.
e. Maintenance. Heat, sand, and dust damage to equipment requires increased maintenance. This not only increases the repair workload, but also increases demand for replacement items due to increased wear.
Disabled vehicles are vulnerable targets. Conceal them as well as the maintenance vehicles used in working on them. Impose strict light and sound discipline at night. Use maintenance contact teams carrying class IX supplies with quick turnovers.
f. Health Services. First aid at squad and platoon level is very important because corpsmen may not be able to reach individual isolated positions. It is easy to lose casualties in this terrain, so a buddy system to keep watch on each other should be a matter of SOP. Medical evacuation is mostly by air. It is a comparatively long distance to the nearest helicopter landing site, so you will require teams of stretcher bearers.
g. Evacuation of Sick and Wounded. Long limited routes and the absence of facilities, such as water, along them, complicate medical evacuation. For these reasons, commanders should opt for evacuation by helicopter. Medical units and evacuation vehicles will require greater quantities of intravenous fluids than they would carry in temperate zone operations.
15. Command and Control.
The commander controls operations, using a highly mobile command group located well forward. He personally directs the battle, but must not be drawn into personally commanding an isolated segment of the force to the detriment of the remainder of the command.
As previously mentioned, dry desert conditions can sometimes reduce radio signal strength and create unforeseen blind spots, even in aircraft operating nap of the earth. If there is any possibility of a commander losing contact with some elements of his command for any length of time, he should operate where he can maintain contact, at least with forward units in critical spots and with his tactical operations center.
PART B - PLANS AND METHODS OF EMPLOYMENT AGAINST THE ENEMY IN DESERT OPERATIONS
Enemy forces operating in the desert are mostly armored, Featuring many tanks, infantry armored fighting vehicles, self-propelled field artillery, air-defense artillery, and other mobile supporting forces.
Enemy forces have a complete array of individual and vehicular protective gear for operations in an NBC environment. Most armored vehicles feature positive protection for vehicle crews when closed down. Enemy forces train extensively for operations on a nuclear battlefield.
Enemy forces can conduct effective electronic warfare operations, including radio interception, jamming, direction finding, and countermeasures to systems similar to their own. You can find threat force equipment and tactics described in How-to-Fight manuals appropriate to each level of command. The following paragraphs describe enemy tactics in the desert.
1. How the Enemy Attacks.
The enemy avoids frontal attacks in the desert. Yet, he will do so if it enables him to hold a defending unit in place while other units maneuver to take advantage of an uncovered flank or gap. He will most often try to attack from one or both flanks, or from the rear. Objectives, deeper than in more conventional terrain, may be airfields, mountain passes, water points, or other key features. Frequently, ground forces attack to link up with parachute or airmobile troops that have completed such missions. Ground forces also attack to cut main supply routes or, destroy combat service support installations. Figure 3-4 illustrates how the enemy conducts attacks on a wide front.
Figure 3-4. Threat Division Frontal Attack.
There may be gaps between companies of a battalion, battalions of a regiment, and regiments of a division. A division may attack in a single echelon. Although, each regiment may maintain a company in combined arms reserve. When a motorized rifle division attacks in two echelons, the tank regiment is likely to be in the first echelon. Regiments and battalions are given more freedom to maneuver than normal, as shown in figure 3-5.
Figure 3-5. Threat Regiment Hasty Attack.
The attack emphasizes speed. Note the direct, deliberate attack illustrated in Figure 3-6. The enemy frequently uses smoke, including dummy screens, to confuse the defender about the actual direction of his attack. Movement will frequently be at night using active and passive night vision devices. Some vehicles have gyro compasses for navigation. Formations depending on them will vary their direction of movement as little as possible so they will not become disoriented. Infantry may dismount and infiltrate to achieve surprise, with tanks and infantry carriers providing a base of fire and joining them after the attack has started. Combined arms teams are as logistically self-sufficient as possible, especially for water.
Figure 3-6. Threat Division Deliberate Attack.
a. Meeting Engagement. Following a movement to contact, enemy forces expect meeting engagements to be most often decisive in desert warfare. Figure 3-7 shows an enemy regiment moving to contact. The enemy plans meeting engagements against resistance met during movement, while he uses breakthrough attacks against forces that he cannot defeat directly after he makes contact. A battalion moves in column until division and regimental reconnaissance elements locate the enemy. Due to longer observation and fields of fire of the defending force, the battalion deploys into company columns approximately 12-15 kilometers from the defenders, and into platoon columns 3-5 kilometers from the line of expected contact.
The forward company engages the defenders to pin them down, and provides supporting fires while the remainder of the battalion moves out to one flank or the other, and either attacks the defenders from that flank or bypasses the position. This maneuver may be up to three kilometers from the original avenue of approach. If the battalion cannot outflank the defense, it continues to maintain frontal pressure while the remainder of the regiment extends the flanking maneuver.
Figure 3-7. Threat Regiment Moving To Contact.
To reduce the risk of counterattack, antitank reserves, regimental mine-laying detachments, smoke, and possibly attack helicopters, cover such movements. The division artillery group deploys in support when the lead regiment is committed.
b. Breakthrough. The enemy mounts the breakthrough against well prepared defensive positions or when a meeting engagement has been repulsed. A regiment also uses it to engage a defender while the remainder of the division maneuvers to attack from the flank or rear. The breakthrough involves larger forces, takes longer to prepare, and has a greater weight of fires than a meeting engagement.
Since previous reconnaissance had been unable to locate gaps or weak points in the defensive positions, the enemy will orient the reconnaissance effort to gain maximum information on the breakthrough area, including artillery locating systems, radar, and radio intercept systems. The attacker normally chooses an avenue of approach with best trafficability and ease of navigation. When two avenues exist, the enemy makes a major effort along one. Units on the other conduct a supporting attack at a time that diverts attention from the main effort. Each avenue used by a division is normally 4-10 kilometers wide, depending on available artillery, with two regiments on one and one regiment on the other. You can support the forces on the main avenue by massive artillery, including mortars, multiple rocket launchers, antitank guns, and indirect tank fire (where necessary) for up to 100 tubes/km of breakthrough frontage.
Divisions normally have assembly areas about 20-30 kilometers from attack positions. Units normally move forward from dispersed areas in march column and break into company and platoon columns at the same distances they would use for a hasty attack. Heavy artillery preparatory fires will start at approximately the same time as battalions break into company column. These fires normally last between 25 and 50 minutes. The enemy makes nuclear or chemical strikes, if used, immediately before conventional preparatory fires.
Tanks usually lead the assault, with infantry carriers supporting them with main or secondary armament 100-400 meters behind. Unless resistance is exceptionally strong, infantry are unlikely to dismount. An enemy uses mine plows and rollers if necessary, with platoons moving through minefields in column. When the enemy cannot clear obstacles mechanically, this may force the infantry to dismount along with supporting engineers, to clear lanes for armored vehicles.
Commit the second echelon, if any, to maintain pressure on the main avenue of approach when the momentum of the attack slows. As soon as it makes contact, the enemy forms a combined arms reserve from bypassed first echelon units, while the remainder of the first echelon, if still effective, continues to advance. A unit that has successfully broken through the defense often moves ahead of its parent unit to destroy deeper positions or seize deeper objectives. Such tasks are often undertaken with airborne or air-transported troops.
c. Parachute and Heli-borne Operations. An enemy extensively uses airborne and air-transported troops, especially at night. Airborne troops are not often committed within brigade area except in support of nuclear strikes. They usually are used on much deeper objectives, for example, a lodgement area. Operations by air-transported troops, using HIP and HOOK and supported by HIND-A attack helicopters, are frequent. The normal force used on such operations is a battalion, or occasionally a larger unit, from a second echelon motorized rifle regiment. A motorized rifle battalion usually gets transported with its organic vehicles and mortars. Likely missions are
- destruction of critical installations.
- securing water sources.
- blocking movement of reserves.
- destroying command posts.
- seizing defiles.
Helicopters, in flat desert terrain, are vulnerable if in range of ground defenders, so they may make a wide detour around a flank. Ground forces attack in order to link up within 48 hours after the operation starts. Until linkup occurs, the force normally has fire support limited to 120-mm mortars, MRLs, ATGM attack aircraft, and possibly a reinforcing artillery battery (towed 122-mm).
d. Pursuit. If the enemy observes any indication of retrograde operations, or attempts to disengage, he maintains pressure and takes up pursuit without further orders. The object of pursuit operations is to encircle and destroy opposing forces. Regimental or larger units conduct pursuit operations. You can organize specially tailored pursuit force units to prevent consolidation along defensive lines, block movement of reserves, seize water sources and any chokepoints along routes, and force retrograding units to halt and deploy.
The enemy moves on axes parallel to the retrograding force, staying as close as possible to maintain continuous observation, and allow simultaneous attack from march column to destroy the retrograding force.
Motorized rifle units maintain pressure against opposing forces while tank units, in march column, move on parallel routes. Air transported troops and advance units, such as a motorized rifle division's independent tank battalion operate up to 60 kilometers ahead of the main body. Units on these missions, however, have only limited endurance and the tank battalion in particular usually avoids becoming involved in sustained combat until it reaches its designated objective. Fresh units pass through others to maintain momentum.
2. How the Enemy Defends.
The enemy uses defense as a temporary measure. When necessary, he holds terrain with motorized rifle troops well dug-in, supported by ATGMs and tanks. Reserve tank units block and counterattack penetrations. Supporting field artillery often employ roving guns and batteries.
a. Hasty Defense. The enemy conducts a hasty defense when consolidating on a line, protecting the flanks of an advancing division, or when unable to continue to advance. Hasty defense is an expedient employed only until the attack can continue with deployment of second echelon forces.
Troops dig in quickly to establish company-size strongpoints, as shown in Figure 3-8. They bring forward all anti-armor equipment, such as "suitcase" Saggers and RPG-7s. BMPs remain near their platoons. Tanks are withdrawn to positions where they can be hull down, or where they can form a counterattack force. The regimental air defense battery deploys immediately, usually with SA-9s in the area of the regimental TOC and trains, and ZSU-23-4s roving. They give priority to field artillery fire plans, including direct-fire antitank fires.
The disposition of companies depends on the importance of the battalion sector and local obstacles. It is normal to find two companies forward with one company in reserve. This greater depth than usual occurs when natural obstacles, such as salt marshes, protect the flanks of a battalion position. When necessary, all three companies may be forward, with a small reserve of perhaps one motorized rifle platoon and a tank platoon. ATGM's cover large intervals between companies and battalions. They will plan antitank fire as far out as possible on either battalion flank.
b. Deliberate Defense. The enemy conducts a deliberate defense when it is clear that the attack cannot continue for several hours, or when higher headquarters halts offensive operations. When time permits, the enemy organizes his defense into a security zone and a main defense belt. If unable to do this, he simply defends from a main defense belt.
Figure 3-8. Threat Reinforced Motorized Rifle Battalion In Hasty Defense.
As shown in Figure 3-9, a security zone extends forward of the main defense belt as much as 20-30 kilometers or more. Normally, security zone outposts employ units from the division second echelon regiment, along with reconnaissance and combat forces from army. This forces an attacker to halt, or delays him by forcing him to deploy before reaching the main defense belt.
The enemy organizes the main defense belt to stop and destroy attacking forces. A division usually defends a zone about 20-30 kilometers wide and 20-30 kilometers deep, or sometimes deeper. They organize the defense in two echelons with two regiments in the first echelon and one in the second echelon. The first echelon regiments defend the forward eight to ten kilometers of the division's zone.
Figure 3-9. Threat Division Deliberate Defense.
Emplaced three to five kilometers forward of the main defensive positions are a series of forward positions consisting of platoons from the battalions which are in position in the rear of the regiment's area of operations. They employ these forward positions in a manner similar to the outpost line and withdraw to positions in the main defensive belt.
The second echelon regiment organizes three battalion defense areas across the rear of the division's zone. Reinforced battalions occupy these areas. They may keep about a platoon per company and possibly a company per battalion, in reserve. Combined arms reserves include some tanks for counterattacks and an antitank reserve to block any penetration. This reserve may consist of the tank regiment minus any battalions that are reinforcing the motorized rifle regiments and the divisional separate tank battalion. Within a motorized rifle division, for example, the reserves may consist of the entire tank regiment and the divisional 100-mm antitank gun battalion.
A battalion front varies from 5,000 to 7,500 meters. If the battalion has to cover a wide front, they use company strongpoints, or platoon strongpoints within company areas. Emplaced are two and sometimes three platoons in forward positions 2,000 meters in front of first echelon companies on the most dangerous avenues of approach. Their mission is to deceive the attacker and cause him to deploy. If encirclement is likely, forward positions normally withdraw.
Gaps between companies, battalions, regiments, and divisions may appear. Patrols and ambush parties keep gaps under observation during the day. Observation posts keep them under observation at night. Alternate direct-fire weapons positions can cover gaps, which are also covered by direct fire.
Army provides extra field artillery to a division, giving a minimum of four 18-gun battalions of either 122-mm howitzer, D-30 or 152-mm gun howitzers, D-1, or the 122-mm SP or 152-mm SP artillery pieces. Provided to each regiment is at least one field artillery battalion, positioned well forward. As in the hasty defense, field artillery also has a direct-fire antitank mission. Reinforcing air defense artillery establishes an envelope stretching 20 kilometers forward of the line of contact.
Regimental mine-laying teams, supported by division minelayers, emplace minefields to protect company strongpoints and canalize enemy armor into fire pockets. They can lay approximately 500 meters of minefield per hour, with a density of 500-1,000 mines per kilometer. Antitank weapons cover the minefields. You can rig them for arming or detonating by remote control. The enemy also uses dummy positions.
Engage the attacker approaching the main position with
- indirect artillery at extended ranges.
- Sagger's and antitank guns at 3,000 meters.
- tanks and direct-fire artillery at 2,000 meters and less.
- SPG-9s at 1,000 meters.
- BMP main guns at 800 meters.
- RPG-7s and other infantry weapons at 600 meters or less.
The enemy emphasizes defense at night and during limited visibility such as sandstorms. Motorized rifle companies move to alternate positions after EENT as a deception measure. Tanks and infantry carriers, protected by infantry squads, move forward and to the flanks to ambush, and to cover intervals between units. Observation posts detect the attacker's active light sources. They freely use white light once an attack has started.
c. Strongpoints. You may encounter strongpoints not only as part of a deliberate defense, but also as protection for vital installations or key terrain features such as passes, important communication centers, etc. U.S. forces operating in deserts likely will encounter various types of strongpoint, depending on locale. Figure 3-10 shows examples of platoon-size strongpoints you will likely find in deserts of the Middle East.
Figure 3-10. Threat Platoon Strongpoint Configurations.
Normally expect a strongpoint to contain antitank weapons and be well protected by minefields and antitank ditches. The combination of minefield, antitank ditch, and high berm results in a nearly tank-proof position. Furthermore, if they have dug in the trenches well enough, it may be able to withstand high concentrations of artillery fire. If you cannot bypass such strongpoints or if you absolutely must capture the position, you may have to take it by a dismounted infantry assault.
PART C - TIPS ON FIGHTING IN THE DESERT.
1. Intelligence.
Learn the following intelligence tips:
- Distances require longer lead times for reconnaissance and surveillance planning. Effective reconnaissance takes time.
- To confirm the intelligence template, the reconnaissance must identify (6-digit accuracy) approximately 80 percent of the enemy antitank systems.
- Scouts are reconnaissance patrols, not combat patrols, and should attempt to gain information through stealth.
- Consideration should be given to conducting reconnaissance during periods of limited visibility.
- You will encounter very few civilians in desert operations. Treat any information they give with caution.
2. Maneuver.
Learn the following maneuver tips:
- When moving in the desert, only terrain masking can provide cover because of the lack of heavy vegetation or manmade objects.
- You can easily see strong shadows from the air, because there is little vegetation in the desert.
- Disrupt shadows by altering the shape of equipment, using the correct angle to the sun to minimize shadow size and to cause shadows to fall on broken ground or vegetation whenever possible.
- Dig in equipment and use overhead cover or camouflage nets to reduce shadows.
- You must move vehicles and equipment as the sun moves.
- Shade optics to prevent shine.
- Open terrain and predominantly clear atmosphere generally offer excellent long-range visibility. However, at certain times of the day, heat may limit or distort visibility.
- The ideal observation position should have the sun behind it and be as high as possible to lessen the effects of mirages and heat radiation from the ground.
- Stake out your target line/engagement area (trigger point). This will prevent soldiers from engaging targets beyond the maximum effective range of the weapon system.
- Observation of fires may be difficult. The lack of visible terrain features distorts your ability to make range estimations.
- When preparing defensive positions, use every available means to know how far you can observe in front of your positions.
- The enemy can see as far as you can. Inspect your position from an enemy point of view.
- Light and noise at night may be seen or heard from miles away, so strict light and noise discipline are necessary.
- Muffle essential noise such as that produced by generator motors and keep the noise to a minimum by digging in or sandbagging the generator.
- Sand and dust reveal movement in the desert. It is best to move at night. This includes resupply as well as tactical movements.
- Sand obscures landing zones, distorts depth perception,and can disorient pilots.
- There are fewer terrain features in the desert. This hinders navigation and exposes friendly forces to the enemy.
- Take advantage of the least considered features to conceal movement, such as wadis. Always camouflage positions.
3. Fire Support.
Learn the following fire support tips:
- Artillery ammunition storage and handling is very important in a dry, hot environment. Very hot ammunition will affect the ballistic solution, which will cause the round to impact long or short of its intended target.
- Dig in storage positions for ammunition. This will keep it cooler.
- Use illumination or smoke rounds to reorient maneuver forces.
- The fire support coordinator is responsible for planning and coordinating all fires in the maneuver area of operations, that is, mortars, Air Force, Marine Corps, and Navy CAS, naval gunfire, and attack helicopters.
4. Mobility/Countermobility/Survivability.
Learn the following mobility/countermobility/survivability tips:
- Units should use linear obstacles to stop enemy movement due to lack of natural obstacles and excellent trafficability of the entire region.
- For efficiency, you must rapidly lay minefields over large areas.
- The enemy will try to attack with the sun low and behind him in an attempt to dazzle the defender.
- Engineer units must plan to have two operators for each piece of equipment because of extra maintenance requirements and harsh working conditions.
- Survivability positions are normally more important than antitank ditches, especially in open terrain.
- A tank platoon properly dug into two step positions can destroy a battalion. As such, earthmoving assets should focus initially on survivability positions.
- Since infantry can dig themselves in, normally the infantry works on digging in before assisting the engineers in the emplacement of mines. The engineer soldiers normally focus entirely on obstacles.
- Once the task force completes crew served positions with overhead cover, it reinforces the engineer soldiers emplacing obstacles to the maximum extent possible.
- Employ "basic loads" of Class IV (sand bags, pickets, etc.) with all vehicles to expedite digging in. The S4 must push forward replacement basic loads during the transition to the defense in standard infantry platoon packages.
- In the desert environment, all forces need camouflage and dispersion.
- Employ reverse slopes as much as possible and camouflage frontal parapets for individual/crew positions. This avoids the obvious bunker positions easily seen and destroyed by direct fire.
- Strong winds increase the evaporation rate of liquid agents and cause chemical clouds to act similarly to radio active fallout, over shorter distances.
- Extended depth and dispersion of vehicles will enhance your chance of survival.
- MOPP discipline and soldier reaction to chemical agents will enhance survivability.
- Engineers should carefully reconnoiter routes of march to avoid needless destruction of roadways, bridges, and pipelines.
- Armored vehicles survive longer when dug in. If we fight outnumbered and win in the desert, we must stress survivability positions.
- Use of dummy positions can conceal operational plans to deceive the enemy as to real location of potential targets such a fighting positions or trains areas.
- High temperatures of the desert day increase the incapacitating effects of liquid agents, which rely on skin penetration, in a comparatively small area around the target.
- Air instability is most likely to cause quick, vertical, and irregular dissipation of an agent, leaving the target area relatively free of contamination quickly.
- Chemical weapons used during the heat of the day are normally persistent nerve or blister agent.
- Strong winds can increase the evaporation of liquid agents and cause chemical clouds to act similarly to radioactive fallout.
5. Air Defense.
Learn the following air defense tips:
- Airspace management difficulties are compounded in the multinational environment. Therefore, you must formalize SOPs to formalize airspace policy.
- Within the BCE, you cannot bring about adequate coordination with host nation forces without host nation liaisons to the BCE.
- Camouflage and dispersion are of the utmost importance to air defense systems. Direct sunlight can also have an effect on the Stinger system.
6. Combat Service Support.
Learn the following combat service support tips:
- Medical support of defense in the desert environment associates with great distances. The depth and dispersion of the defense create significant time/distance problems.
- In a nonlinear desert defense, enemy and friendly units will intermingle, especially in poor visibility.
- Medical treatment and evacuation will become more critical in the desert. The effectiveness of the combat lifesaver program has been proven.
- Medics must constantly recertify and train designated combat lifesavers. The standard should be at least one per squad.
- Rehearse how your unit will identify, treat, and evacuate casualties. This is as important as how you will fight.
- Constantly clean all weapons. When not in use, keep weapons covered. Covered weapons may still have sand on them, so clean the weapon frequently so it will be ready when needed.
- PMCS in the desert is absolutely essential. Left unattended, sand and wind rapidly destroy the most basic piece of a soldier's gear.
- Sand clogs fuel lines, wears out tires and other rubber and plastic parts fast. It also seeps into engines and cooling systems. This results in overheated engines which can cause sudden and catastrophic failure.
- Food service organizations require intense supervision. Augment current menus with fresh fruit, vegetables, and breads to provide soldiers the nutrients they need.
7. Command and Control.
Learn the following command and control tips:
- Commanders should attempt to operate where they can maintain contact with forward units in critical spots and with the TOC.
- Desert evenings can be extremely long or short. Leaders should be concerned with EENT, BMNT, and percentage of illumination. These factors will be extremely important when fighting night battles.
- Dry desert conditions can, at times, reduce radio signal strength and create unforeseen blind spots, even in aircraft operating nap of the earth.
- FM communications may degrade due to dead spots caused by heavy concentrations of minerals close to the surface. Establish firm procedures for constant control, either by radio or through liaison.
- Ensure that all know the commander's intent and rehearse battle drill, so actions are understood even without good communications.
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