in0828 Lesson 2

LESSON TWO

DESERT CAMOUFLAGING, WEAPONS MAINTENANCE, ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS ON PERSONNEL AND EQUIPMENT AND PREPARATIONS FOR DESERT OPERATIONS

OVERVIEW

TASK DESCRIPTION:

In this lesson, you will learn how to determine and select methods, techniques, and procedures used in camouflaging self and equipment in a desert environment to include protection of eyes and skin from overexposure during extreme heat, protection from the sun during daylight hours, and how to construct a field-expedient shelter in the desert. You also will learn to demonstrate supervisory skills in directing and supervising weapons maintenance in a desert environment, and to identify and select the desert's environmental effects on personnel and equipment. Also, you will learn to determine and select factors and considerations needed in preparing for desert operations.

LEARNING OBJECTIVE:

TASKS:	Determine and select methods, techniques, and procedures used in camouflaging self and equipment in a desert environment, including protection of eyes and skin from overexposure during extreme heat, protection from the sun during daylight hours, and the construction of a field-expedient shelter. Direct and supervise weapons maintenance in a desert environment. Identify and select the desert's environmental effects on personnel and equipment. Determine and select factors and considerations for preparation of desert operations.
CONDITIONS:	You will have information from FM 90-3, FM 21-76 and Newsletter No. 90-7, Special Edition, AUG 90.
STANDARDS:	Determine and select methods, techniques, and procedures for camouflaging self and equipment in a desert environment, including protection of eyes and skin from overexposure during extreme heat, and from the sun during daylight hours, construct a field-expedient shelter, direct and supervise weapons maintenance in a desert environment, identify and select the desert's environmental effects on personnel and equipment, and determine and select factors and considerations for preparation of desert operations in accordance with FM 90-3, FM 21-76 and Newsletter No. 90-7, Special Edition, AUG 90.
REFERENCES:	The material contained in this lesson was derived from the following publications: FM 90-3 FM 21-76 Newsletter No. 90-7, Special Edition, AUG 90.

INTRODUCTION

There are many problems associated with living and fighting in the desert environment. Throughout history, the Greek, French, British, and American forces have learned and relearned the problems associated with desert operations. More recently, observations gathered after the Arab-Israeli conflict of the 60's and 70's have provided lessons learned on personnel, operations, and equipment in the desert. Desert conditions can force our military to reevaluate and rethink operational plans. History and lessons learned will have an impact on how the U. S. Army performs in the future. Safety, survival, study, and common sense thinking will lead to mission accomplishment.

Many insights for both active and reserve component units come from the National Training Center (NTC), Exercise Bright Star, Saudi Arabia Lessons Learned (Army Materiel Command, 1983), and information extracted from the Center for Army Lessons Learned (CALL) data base. Remember that the principles and fundamentals of combat do not change in the desert. Priorities may alter and techniques will vary from those in temperate climates. However, soldiers, leaders, and units who are fit and well trained to fight in other environments will have little difficulty adjusting to desert war. We have been training at the NTC since 1982, and, as shown by Desert Storm, know how to fight in the desert.

PART A - CAMOUFLAGING SELF AND EQUIPMENT IN A DESERT ENVIRONMENT

1. Desert Shelters.

In an arid environment, you must consider time, effort, and material needed to make a shelter. If you have canvas, parachute, poncho, or aircraft soundproofing materiel, use it and a terrain feature as follows:

a. Rock Method:

Find an outcropped rock.

Anchor one end of your material on the edge of the outcropped rock using rocks or other weights.

Extend and anchor the other end of the material so it gives you the best possible shade.

b. Mound Method:

Build a mound of sand or use the side of a sand dune for one side of the shelter.

Anchor one end of the material on top of the mound (or sand dune) using sand or other weights.

Extend and anchor the other end of the material so it gives you the best possible shade.

NOTE:

If you have enough material, fold it in half and form a 12 to 18-inch (30 to 45-centimeter) airspace between the halves. This will reduce the temperature below the shelter.

c. Below Ground Method. This type shelter, shown in Figure 2-1, reduces the midday heat as much as 30 to 40 degrees Fahrenheit. Building it, however, requires more time and effort than building other types of shelters. During the day, your physical effort will make you sweat more, increasing dehydration. Thus, you should wait until the cool of the night to make it.

Figure 2-1. Desert Shelter.

To make this shelter:

Find a low spot or depression between dunes or rocks. If necessary, dig a trench 18 to 24 inches (45 to 60 centimeters) deep and long enough and wide enough for you to lie down comfortably.

Pile the sand you take from the trench around three sides to form a mound.

Dig out more sand on the open end of the trench so you can get in and out of your shelter easily.

Cover the trench with material, such as parachute, poncho, or canvas.

Secure the material in place using sand, rocks, or other weights.

If you have extra material, you can further decrease the midday temperature in the trench by securing the material 12 to 18 inches (30 to 45 centimeters) above the other cover. This layering of material will reduce the inside temperature 20 to 40 degrees Fahrenheit.

2. Cover and Concealment.

This paragraph describes the influence of the environment on cover and concealment and certain techniques you can use in the desert.

a. Cover. When moving in a desert lacking heavy vegetation or man-made objects, obtain cover by terrain masking. When digging in positions for tanks and personnel carriers, make irregular-shaped scoops about two meters deep in the center and three times the vehicle width in approximate diameter. These more closely resemble natural depressions in the desert floor. If the ground is extremely rocky and engineer assistance is not available, it may be necessary to build sangars for dismounted infantry. As shown in Figure 2-2, use the largest rocks available to make sangars. Securely wedge the rocks together with a one-foot (. 3 meter) slope on each side for each four feet (1. 22 meters) in height. Line the sangar walls with sandbags. Sangars must be as small as possible in diameter, holding three or four men each.

Figure 2-2. Sangar.

b. Concealment. You rarely can achieve total concealment of an object, but camouflage properly used can make it impossible to perceive what the object is.

(1) Movement. Any form of desert movement creates dust. Moving directly across country on the hardest ground available reduces dust clouds. Many desert surfaces are thin hard crusts with dust underneath, and the crusts are easily broken. In this case and to prevent dust signatures, vehicles should not directly follow each other unless there is a serious danger of mines. When planning for employment of attack helicopters, consider that helicopters may have to operate higher than normal to avoid noticeable dust signatures.

(2) Shape. The problem of shape is the same as in temperate climates. However, excellent observation and lack of concealment in desert terrain make it more difficult. You can shape a certain amount by covering vehicles with scrub held on with chicken wire. Try to harmonize with the background using this technique. Gasoline and water trucks, usually prime targets for enemy attack, should have canvas covers over their bodies so they resemble standard cargo trucks. Desert camouflage nets must match the color and texture of the ground and must also be complete covers. A standard net, which relies on casting irregular shadows, is useless in this terrain. Avoid antenna farms at command posts by remoting radios in different directions from the TOC.

(3) Shine. Avoid shine on vehicles and equipment by using matte camouflage paint, covered, if necessary, by mud or a thin mixture of grease and sand. For aircraft, this mixture is unsuitable. Therefore, they must rely on paint alone. You may cover vehicle windshields with cloth, thin enough to allow vision through it. Cover all aircraft optical devices when not in use, even at night. As shown in Figure 2-3, keep shading over optics such as gunsights and binoculars. Use with caution such shiny items as mapboards and mess kits.

Figure 2-3. Shade Optics to Prevent Shine.

(4) Shadow. Because there is little vegetation in most deserts, strong shadows, are readily observed from the air. Note the effect shown in Figure 2-4. You can disrupt shadows by

altering the equipment shape.

using the correct angle to the sun to reduce shadow size.

causing shadows to fall on broken ground or vegetation whenever possible.

The best solution is to dig in, and use overhead cover or, at least, camouflage nets. It is also necessary for you to move vehicles and equipment as the sun moves.

Figure 2-4. Camouflage: Effect of Shadow.

(5) Heat. A thermal sensor is a passive device that can build up a picture of a target. It can penetrate limited camouflage and smoke screens as heat has greater penetrating power than light. It relies on temperature differences between a target and its surroundings; the greater the difference the better the resolution. It should not be as efficient in the desert day as it would be at the same hour in cooler climates. However, it will be very useful at night. So it is particularly necessary to shield heat emission sources at night. Figure 2-5 shows the thermal image of a tank at night. Note the tracks, roadwheels, commander, and driver. This tank has not fired recently, so there is no special radiation from the tube.

Figure 2-5. Thermal Image of Tank at Night.

(6) Smoke. To conceal movement, it is often necessary to use smoke in large quantities, both day and night. Smoke does not provide total protection. It only degrades the enemy's close observation capabilities. Smoke does not affect radar significantly. Thus, enemy radar can see troops and aircraft operating behind smoke. Thermal imagery also can see through smoke. Although, the higher the ambient temperature the less effective this will be.

Desert weather to some degree affects smoke. Turbulent air conditions at maximum temperatures for example, may cause white phosphorus to pillar and break up rapidly. A steady wind about five knots across the target in the lower temperatures of morning and evening is the best condition for a deliberate screen.

There are four general categories of smoke employment in desert warfare:

(a) Large-area Smoke Screen. Normally, a large-area smoke screen is preplanned (as it often requires prestocking of ammunition) and fired by field artillery or mortars. Use smoke generators, especially when crossing obstacles. A screen of great density, width, and duration will probably alert the enemy that movement is in progress. However, you also can use large-area smoke screens in a deception plan.

(b) Small-area Smoke Screen. Normally, you lay down a small-area smoke screen by battalion task force mortars or tank guns. This type of screen will be the most common employment of smoke in the desert. Commanders should consider carrying more smoke ammunition in mortar platoons and company headquarters tanks than would be normal in temperate climates.

(c) Identifying Smoke. A forward observer or other person directing artillery fire may use smoke to identify ranging rounds when they strike. This is particularly the case where significant terrain features are absent. It is also useful to mark targets for close air support.

(d) Local Smoke. A tank fires local smoke when caught in the open by enemy fire. Sometimes it will be the first indication to an overwatch element that the enemy is firing. The tank commander uses smoke to conceal his movement to a hull down position while overwatch vehicles engage the enemy. Commanders must guard against any tendency to allow an attack to lose momentum by overuse of local smoke.

3. Equipment Camouflaging.

a. Vehicles and Aircraft. Movement of vehicles produces dust, diesel plumes, and distinctive track marks. The slower the speed the less the dust. However, you must balance the need for speed against the dust that may be produced. Drivers must avoid harsh use of accelerators, the main cause of diesel plumes.

After dismounting local security, camouflage is the first priority when a vehicle halts. Actions to be taken are:

Position vehicle in vegetation or shadow if available.

Cover shiny surfaces and shadow areas with burlap screens.

Drape net.

Add any available vegetation to net.

Blot out vehicle tracks for 50 meters behind vehicle.

During the day, you may have a problem with shine from the following:

Optical instruments (which you should keep shaded).

Matte paint polished by continual wear.

Tracks, particularly if the rubber blocks have been removed.

When stationary, use burlap to cover running gear on tracks polished by wear.

b. Position Selection. Position selection is critical, at every level. One essential of camouflage, particularly in the desert, is to fit into the existing ground pattern with minimum alteration to terrain. For example, you can improve a wadi bottom with vegetation or a pile of boulders by using grey burlap and chicken wire. Do not choose sites that are virtually automatic targets for enemy suppressive fires. If possible, screen antennas against the enemy. Use existing trails and blend new trails into old ones.

Shadows, particularly in the morning and evening, identify objects. Place equipment in total shadow (rarely found) or with its maximum vertical area towards the sun so minimum shadow falls on the ground. For example, the maximum vertical area on a five-ton truck with canopy, is the rear. For an M88, its the front. You can break shadow up by taking positions next to scrub or broken surfaces such as rocks. Do not site equipment broadside to the sun. Moving equipment as the sun moves, is usually necessary. Digging-in reduces the length of shadows.

c. Ground Surface. Vehicles passing over pebble or heavy ground surface press the pebbles or gravel into the soil. This causes track marks to be prominent when viewed from the air. Avoid such areas if possible. Soil texture suitable for digging must be a consideration when reconnoitering for battle positions. You must cover holes to avoid cast shadows. You should dig trenches for vehicles that will be in position for more than a day.

d. Dispersion and Discipline. You can easily detect vehicles bunched together in open areas at ranges up to 10 kilometers, from the air, or high vantage points. Disperse unit elements to the greatest degree possible using all available natural cover and concealment.

Tactical operations centers in forward areas are the most difficult positions to hide. Their need for concealment is great, so they require strict camouflage discipline. Do not allow vehicles and aircraft to approach closer than 300-400 meters. Disperse and conceal them. Have nets readily available for aircraft. Pay special attention to lights and noise at night. You will have to dig in generators and emplace radios and antenna systems as far out as possible, in different directions.

e. Cover and Concealment. It is relatively easier to conceal troops in barren mountains than on the desert floor. This is due to rugged ground, deep shadows especially at dawn and dusk, and observer difficulties in establishing perspective. You can use carefully placed rocks to hide equipment. Although, they can chip and splinter under small arms fire. You may use the normal type camouflage net, which breaks up outline by shadow, rather than the overall cover used in desert.

f. Color and Texture. All equipment should be pattern painted to blend with terrain and texture. TC 5-200 describes disruptive pattern painting for vehicles and aircraft, including colors and patterns to use. However, you can use any available local materials to improve or vary the camouflage paint. Figure 2-6 shows effective pattern usage. Color and texture of local terrain is best represented by using a little water with dirt to make it stick to vehicles. You can increase the effects by attaching local vegetation to a wide-mesh net that covers a vehicle. Attach the vegetation with foliage brackets. You may use twine or wire as an alternative to the net provided vegetation is available.

Generally, deserts do not offer much natural concealment or means for camouflage. Therefore, it is necessary for you to make maximum use of any artificial means available to the force.

Figure 2-6. Camouflage - Color and Texture.

Some or all of the following equipment should be available for every vehicle and aircraft. Although, aircraft may not be able to carry all of it:

g. Desert Camouflage Nets. Two basic types of camouflage nets are available, the standard net and the light weight camouflage screening system (LWCSS), desert version.

(1) Standard Net. The standard net used in temperate climates is wide mesh, garnished with narrow multicolored strips running in different directions. It relies on the casting of irregular shadows to break up outline. Such a net is not suitable for desert operations.

(2) LWCSS. The LWCSS is the preferred net. This net provides concealment against visual, near-IR, and radar target acquisition/surveillance sensor devices. Additionally, the transparent version of the LWCSS allows U. S. units to camouflage radars (less CW type radars) without degrading operations.

A desert camouflage net should be a complete cover. It depends on its imitation of the ground surface, both color and texture, for its effect. The alternatives, in order of priority, are

the specially produced desert pattern net of the light weight screening system.

an open weave cloth, colored as appropriate to the soil or "patched" and stitched to an ordinary wide mesh net. This provides both color and texture. You can suitably garnish it with radar-scattering plastic, such as that used in the light weight screening system, and with any existing local vegetation.

a cover of close weave cloth colored as appropriate.

a standard net garnished solid, threaded in long straight strips and colored to harmonize with the terrain. You must maintain the garnishing.

The number of nets issued depends on the size of the equipment you must cover. You should use a quantity sufficient enough to allow a gradual slope from the top to earth of not more than 15 degrees. Each company size unit should have a spray gun and various tints of paint for temporary variations in net color to match the terrain.

When using nets for stationary equipment:

Do not allow nets to touch sensitive items such as helicopter rotor heads and radio antennas that may cause a net to catch fire.

Do not pull nets so tight that each supporting pole stands out.

Ensure the net does not prevent the equipment from fulfilling its primary task. In some equipment such as helicopters, a net must be easily removable to reduce reaction time.

Avoid straight edge patterns on the ground, which indicate something is there.

h. Burlap. Use burlap that is spray painted in a nondescript desert color, to cover all reflecting surfaces, excluding fire control optics. Also, you can use it for shadow-producing areas under vehicle bodies, including tank suspensions. Aircraft equipped with windscreen covers will not require burlap.

i. Poles. Use natural or man-made poles to raise the nets from the equipment, thereby hiding its shape. You must bring them into the area of operations. Remember, they will be extremely difficult to replace in the desert if lost or damaged.

j. Mushrooms. Made locally of thin iron tubing, the "mushroom" resembles an open umbrella without its cover and with the end of the spokes joined together. Its slotted shape fits into a socket welded on to the top of a tank, personnel carrier or self-propelled gun. The mushroom lifts the net above the vehicle. It conceals the vehicle's shape, increases air circulation, and permits the crew or team to use the top hatches.

k. Pegs and Pins. Use wooden pegs or long steel pins, depending on soil consistency, to hook and hold a camouflage net to the ground away from the vehicle.

l. Machetes. Use machetes to cut desert scrub if it exists in the immediate area.

CAUTION

WOOD SHRINKS IN THE DESERT. MAKE SURE WOOD HANDLED TOOLS SUCH AS AXES AND MALLETS ARE SECURE BEFORE USING.

m. Mallets. Use mallets to drive pegs and pins into the ground.

4. Aircraft Concealment.

Stationary aircraft take a long time to conceal as they are fragile in comparison with other equipment. Aircraft have a considerable heat signature, and must be readily accessible for maintenance. The more you conceal them, the greater their response time is likely to be. When aircraft approach and land at a site where they will stay for some time, the following actions should be taken in sequence:

(1) Aircraft must approach the site terrain-masked from enemy surveillance.

(2) Close down the aircraft as soon as possible.

(3) Cover all reflective surfaces.

(4) Tow or push the aircraft into shadow if possible.

(5) Depending on the type, shift the main rotor until it is at an angle of 45 degrees with the fuselage. Drape a net over the rotor and fuselage. Picket the rotor to the ground.

(6) Conceal the remainder of the aircraft.

5. Field Artillery Dispersal.

Enemy target acquisition capability and counter-battery fire poses a major threat to field artillery units. Greatly increase your survivability by practicing timely movement and dispersion. Set up a method or SOP to react to enemy counter-battery fire. For example, when you are about to bring effective fire on a unit (unit bracketed by adjusting rounds) or you bring effective fire on a position, you could automatically or on signal, disperse your firing battery. Prearrange dispersal patterns. The unit would then regroup and move to and occupy a previously selected position. Organize the battery to maximize dispersal. Stagger gun positions, and minimize ground storage, especially of ammunition. The ability to disperse instantaneously can significantly reduce vulnerability of firing batteries.

6. Air Defense Artillery Concealment.

Air defense artillery are priority targets for enemy air and ground units. The LWCSS degrades the use of the HAWK CW radar, so concealment of the HAWK will be more difficult since it must be free of camouflage. Additionally, concealment is difficult since all ADA weapons must be maintained in a high state of readiness. Air defense units must rely on the following:

a. Digging-in. Allow generators, if dug-in, adequate air space for cooling.

b. Concealment. Conceal vehicles, not weapons and radars. Rocket motors may set camouflage on fire. Cover radars with radar-transparent light weight screening systems, if available.

c. Siting. Carefully site in the pattern of terrain. Do not place other equipment too close, to minimize the possibility of attracting the enemy's attention to the site.

7. Engineering Concealment.

Engineer activity often precedes operations. It is important that units conceal their activity from enemy surveillance. Use the following guidelines:

Employ the minimum number of equipment and personnel.

Keep idle equipment well away from the site, dispersed, and concealed.

Complete all possible preparation well away from the site.

Follow the ground pattern if possible.

8. Trains Concealment. Trains must rely on concealment for a large part of their protection. The following guidelines will assist unit commanders to conceal stationary and moving trains.

All vehicles of a given type should look alike. This will make it difficult for an enemy to pick out critical vehicles such as water and fuel trucks in a column. Canopies over fuel trucks not only disguise them but also prevent radiant heat striking the fuel containers.

Vehicles should follow the tracks of the preceding vehicle if it is possible to do so without breaking through the crust. This makes it impossible for an enemy intelligence interpreter to calculate how many vehicles have passed.

Suppress noise. Remove cab doors, for example, to avoid the possibility of slamming.

Screen exhaust systems to reduce heat signature.

Never form vehicle patterns when stationary or moving.

9. Supply Points. A supply point is likely to be in such a location that its main threat will be visual, either by eye or photograph. Normally, you can place greater emphasis on selecting positions for concealment rather than tactical efficiency, particularly in situations of limited air defense cover. Use the following guidelines:

Space stocks irregularly in length and depth to the maximum extent possible so there is no definite pattern.

Pile stocks as low as possible and preferably dug-in (for example, a pile of gasoline cans should be only one can high).

The shape of the area should not be square or rectangular, but follow the local ground pattern.

Cover stocks with sand, gravel, burlap, netting, or anything that harmonizes with local terrain. Gradually slope the sides with soil to the top of the dump.

Mix the contents of each supply point so the destruction of one will not cause immediate shortage of a particular commodity.

Select a location that has existing trails. Vehicles must use existing trails when possible.

PART B - WEAPONS MAINTENANCE IN A DESERT ENVIRONMENT

1. Weapons.

Weapons may become clogged or missiles jammed on launching rails due to sand and dust accumulation. Sand or dust-clogged barrels can lead to in-bore detonation. Keep muzzles covered by a thin cover so you can fire an explosive projectile through the cover without risk of explosion. Also, cover missiles on launchers until required for use. Use only the absolute minimum amount of lubrication on working parts of weapons. It may be preferable to have weapons totally dry, since damage caused during firing will be less than that produced by the sand/oil abrasive paste.

2. Weapons Lubrication.

Some field-experienced personnel strongly believe that soldiers operating in the desert should not lubricate any weapon unless it is being taken into combat immediately. Conventional lubricants attract more dust and dirt than would accumulate on a dry weapon. There is no danger of rust most times of the year. Especially conscientious soldiers stuff oily rags down barrels or wrap the rags around jam-prone mechanisms. Weapons system manufacturers continue to recommend generous lubrication in their consulting visits to SANG, emphasizing that lack of lubricant affects the weapon both in storage and in operation. Lubricate weapons in storage according to U. S. standards. However, do not heavily lubricate weapons that are in use.

3. Ammunition.

Keep ammunition away from direct heat and sunlight. If you can hold it in your bare hands, it is safe to fire. White phosphorous ammunition filler tends to liquefy at temperatures more than 111 degrees Fahrenheit (43. 89 degrees Centigrade). This condition will cause unstable flight unless you store the projectiles in an upright position.

Experience shows that consumption of artillery ammunition occurs in greater quantities than normally expected in a different environment. This is due to the expansive open terrain upon which an engagement would probably occur. Erratic ballistic behavior has been observed on artillery and tank rounds due to excessive heat.

Increase consumption planning for artillery and antitank ammunition. Store ammunition in areas with a double sun shade. Wherever possible, in addition to the double sun shade, store the ammunition approximately one meter below the desert floor. This method reduces the ambient temperature in the storage site below 100 degrees Fahrenheit (37. 78 degrees Centigrade).

4. Optics.

Blowing sand causes small pitting and scratches, which gradually degrades all optic performance. Guard against buildup of dust on optics. Dust may not be apparent until the low-light performance has severely deteriorated. It is advisable to keep optics covered with some type of cling film (plastic wrap) until operations determine their use. Whenever possible, use a soft brush to clean optics. If possible, use a low air pressure system to blow all sand out before wiping or dusting to prevent scratching the lens. Keep helicopter windscreens covered if the aircraft is not in use. Use a cover that has no sand on the underside, and secure it so it cannot vibrate against the windscreen.

Optics in central Saudi Arabia are completely free of moisture-related problems. However, in areas adjacent to the Arabian Gulf and the Red Sea, problems with condensation and moisture occur more often than usual. The major threat to optics is wind blown sand, which gradually degrades optic performance by pitting and scratching the lenses.

Regular maintenance and inspection of optics will help eliminate or control moisture-related problems. Use lens covers to prevent damage from dust and blowing sand. If possible, keep the system completely covered until ready for use.

5. Sand Accumulation.

Sand and dirt can easily accumulate in hull bottoms of armored vehicles. This accumulation, combined with condensation or oil can cause jamming of control linkages. Sand accumulation at the air bleeder valve can prevent heat from escaping the transmission, resulting in transmission damage. The operator's checks and services increase in importance in this environment.

6. Humidity.

Some deserts are humid. Where this is the case, humidity plus heat encourages rust on bare metal and mold in enclosed spaces such as optics. Keep clean and very lightly lubricate the bare metal surfaces on equipment not required for immediate use. Store items such as optics in dehydrated conditions using hydroscopic material. Those in use, keep under conditions where free air can circulate around them. Purge the equipment at frequent intervals. Wash aircraft daily, particularly if there is salt in the air. Use low-pressure sprays.

7. Temperature Variations.

a. Condensation. In deserts with high dew levels and high humidity, overnight condensation can occur wherever surfaces such as metal exposed to air are cooler than the air temperature. This condensation can affect such items as optics, fuel lines, and air tanks. Drain fuel lines both night and morning. Clean optics frequent]y. Weapons, even if not lubricated, will accumulate sand and dirt due to condensation, another reason for daily cleaning.

b. Expansion and Contraction. Air and all fluids expand and contract according to temperature. Tires inflated to correct pressure during the cool of night may burst during the heat of day. Fuel tanks filled to the brim at night will overflow at midday. Servicing these items during the heat of day can result in under-pressures, overheating of tires and a lack of endurance due to their incorrect fuel levels. Check air pressures when equipment is operating at efficient working temperatures. Fill fuel tanks to their correct capacity as defined in the appropriate technical manual.

c. Gun Tube Bend. Gun tube bend ("droop"), illustrated in Figure 2-7, is more common in temperate climates. The cause of gun tube bend is temperature variations between one side of a tube and the other, such as a cold wind on a hot tube. It distorts the accuracy of a long-barrel, direct-fire weapon such as the 105-mm tank cannon. In the desert, it is usually in the vertical plane due to radiant heat on top of the tube while the lower side is in the shade. This produces a downward bend that causes rounds to fall short of the target. Gun tube bend can correct itself when the tube has built up an even temperature after you fire a few rounds. You may need to resight the bore as a result of tube bend. Tanks with thermal gun tube covers have built-in compensators.

d. Instruments. Precision instruments such as range finders may require adjustment several times during the desert day depending on temperature variation.

Figure 2-7. Gun Tube Bend.

8. TOW Antitank Weapon.

Some observers have complained that the TOW antitank weapon kicks up an excessive dust signature with its backblast. The complaint does not deserve as much attention, since the TOW is such an effective weapon overall. If placed intelligently (that is, away from soft sand), its visibility to an enemy would be minimal. Furthermore, in the heat of battle, anything moving would generate dust. This would camouflage the signature made by TOW. TOW is a highly effective antitank weapon in the desert. Its dust signature, albeit a consideration, is not a serious drawback.

PART C -

EFFECTS ON PERSONNEL AND EQUIPMENT IN A DESERT ENVIRONMENT

1. Environmental Effects on Personnel.

There is no reason to fear the desert environment. It should not adversely affect a soldier's morale if he prepares for it and takes certain precautions to protect himself and his equipment. Remember there is nothing unique about either living or fighting in deserts. Native tribesmen have lived in the Sahara for thousands of years. The British maintained a field army and won a campaign in the Western Desert in World War II at the far end of a 12,000-mile sea line of communication. Their equipment was substantially inferior to that in service now. The desert is basically neutral, affecting both sides equally. The side whose personnel are best prepared for desert operations has a distinct advantage.

WARNING

TEMPERATURES AND NIGHT OPERATIONS CAN LEAD TO SLEEP DEPRIVATION, WHICH CAN IMPACT MENTAL HEALTH, PERFORMANCE, AND LEAD TO ACCIDENTAL INJURY AND DEATH.

a. Discipline. The desert is both physically and emotionally fatiguing. A high standard of discipline is essential, as an individual's single lapse may cause serious damage to his unit or to himself. Commanders must exercise an exceptionally high level of leadership. They must train their junior leaders to assume greater responsibilities required by the wide dispersion of units, normal in desert warfare. Soldiers with good leaders are more apt to accept heavy physical exertion and uncomfortable conditions. Every soldier must clearly understand why he is fighting in such harsh conditions. Keep him informed of the operational situation. Ultimately, however, the maintenance of discipline will depend on individual training.

b. Welfare. Commanders must pay special attention to the welfare of troops operating in the desert. Soldiers will be unable to find any "comforts" except those provided by the command. Welfare is an essential factor in the maintenance of morale in an environment that appears-and is-harsh, especially to the inexperienced. There is more to welfare than the provision of mail and clean clothing, although, these are important. Soldiers must stay healthy and physically fit. They need adequate, tasty, and regular food, and due periods of rest and sleep. It will not always be possible such care and discomfort is inevitable. However, if troops know that their commanders are doing everything to make life tolerable, they will accept the difficulties that arise.

c. Climatic Stress. Any combination of air temperature, humidity, air movement, and radiant heat can cause climatic stress on the human body in the desert. Factors such as lack of acclimation, overweight, dehydration, alcoholic excess, lack of sleep, old age, and poor health, adversely affect your body. Your body maintains its optimum temperature of 98. 6 degrees Fahrenheit (37 degrees Centigrade), by conduction/convection, radiation, and evaporation (sweat). The most important of these in day time desert is evaporation, as air temperature alone is probably already above skin temperature. However, if relative humidity is high, air will not easily evaporate sweat, thus, reducing the cooling effect.

d. Acclimatization. Acclimatization to heat is necessary to permit the body to reach and maintain efficiency in its cooling process. Allow approximately two weeks for acclimatization, with progressive degrees of heat exposure and physical exertion. Although this strengthens heat resistance, there is no total protection against the debilitating effects of heat. Situations may arise where soldiers have to perform heavy labor before they become fully acclimated. If this happens, limit heavy activity to cooler hours and allow soldiers to rest more frequently than normal.

e. Wind. The combination of wind and dust or sand can cause extreme irritation to your mucous membranes and chap your lips and other exposed skin surfaces. Vehicle crews, even if wearing goggles, frequently complain of irritative conjunctivitis. Fine particles entering the eyes cause conjunctivitis. All personnel must use chapsticks and skin and eye ointments.

WARNING

SANDSTORMS CAN BE KILLERS IN THE DESERT.

f. Sandstorms. Sandstorms are fast, windblown sand that can be extremely painful on bare skin. For this reason, stay fully clothed. When sand storms reduce visibility to where military operations are impossible, allow only those soldiers secured to recovery lines to leave their group.

You must carry pieces of cloth or bandannas to help cover your face and neck during sandstorms. Windblown sand causes you to turn your head while driving and you'll be off course. Keep this in mind because you must compensate by buttoning up, taking constant compass readings, or using geographic reference points.

g. Desert Fog. In the desert, temperature fluctuation and moisture in the air may produce fog. The fog may form a belt that moves rapidly through an area of operation or it may hang suspended for extended periods. In many instances, this desert fog disrupted operations involving the SANG.

The almost zero visibility of desert fog seriously affects vehicle operations, land navigation, target acquisition, enemy observation, and direct fire. However, units with thorough knowledge of the terrain in their areas of operation can effectively use this fog to disengage from the enemy, or conduct raids and ambushes.

h. Water. As pointed out in Figure 2-8, approximately 75 percent of the human body is fluid. All chemical activities in the body occur in a water solution. Water aids in the removal of toxic body wastes and plays a vital part in the maintenance of an even body temperature. A loss of two quarts of body fluid (2. 5 percent of body weight) decreases efficiency by 25 percent. A loss of fluid equal to 15 percent of body weight is usually fatal.

Figure 2-8. Loss of Water in the Body.

WARNING

DON'T DRINK UNTESTED WATER.

(1) Potable Drinking Water. Potable (drinkable) water is the most basic need in the desert. Make sure there is no possibility of non-potable water being mistaken for drinking water. Use water that is not fit to drink but not otherwise dangerous (merely over-salinated, for example) to aid cooling. Use it to wet clothing, for example, so the body does not use so much of its internal store.

(2) Nonpotable Water. Because local water in central Saudi Arabia is highly saline, supply units often provide "sweet" water (that is, drinking water) for cleaning and maintenance. Saline water calcifies in automobile cooling systems, reducing cooling capacity. It corrodes metals when used for washing. Isolated open wells exist in some of the wadis. Abundant water is only available from drilled wells that tap underground rivers and lakes at depths of 3,000 to 8,000 feet (914 to 2,438 meters). The water from these wells has an extremely high mineral content that makes it unsafe to drink.

(3) Bad Water. Among Westerners, there have been a few cases of gallstones and other urinary disorders following completion of extended periods in central Saudi Arabia. Some persons have drawn a link between the illness and the local water, which is high in mineral content. Purified water is available for drinking, but it is possible that it too may affect certain sensitive individuals. Expect a higher-than-normal incidence of urinary disorders, possibly as a result of poor drinking water.

(4) Liquids Consumption. Unacclimated Westerners dehydrate rapidly in the desert. The only sure solution to dehydration is forcing fluids (drinking even when not apparently thirsty on some sort of schedule, if possible). Experience shows that if a man feels thirsty in the desert, he is already on the borderline of trouble. The Arabs drink a very sweet, hot tea. It may be a good reason to imitate them.

Plan to supply unusually large quantities of drinking water. The local water is unsuitable for drinking, cooking, cleaning and maintenance. Experience in the SANG battalions indicates that a unit will require at least seven to nine gallons of water per person per 24-hour period.

(5) Water Containers. Use issued water containers only for drinking water. Carry enough water on a vehicle to last the crew until the next planned resupply plus a small reserve.

NOTE:

You need approximately nine quarts of water per person per day in desert terrain.

Leaders must make their troops force drink two quarts of water per person per hour when they are active. It is a good idea to erect shade for water trailers it lets the water stay much cooler. Carry water containers in positions that

clamp them firmly to the vehicle body to prevent seams splitting by vibration.

provide shade and are in an air draft.

guard against the possibility of puncture by shell splinters.

dismount easily in an emergency.

Plastic water cans are the best containers for small quantities of water (five gallons). Water in plastic cans stays good up to 72 hours. Water in metal containers will only stay good for 24 hours. Water in water trailers, if kept in the shade, will last up to five days. Monitor the temperature of your water. If the air temperature outside exceeds 100 degrees Fahrenheit (37. 78 degrees Centigrade), change the water when it exceeds 92 degrees Fahrenheit (33. 33 degrees Centigrade). Bacteria in the water will multiply, and, if is not changed, you will end up with a case of diarrhea. Ice in containers will keep water cool. If you put ice in water trailers, remove it before you move the trailer. The floating ice will destroy the inner protection of the trailer.

NOTE:

Leaders, check out your soldiers' water and make sure it is cool and still drinkable.

(6) Conservation. Train soldiers not to waste water. As illustrated in Figure 2-9, water used for washing socks is perfectly adequate for a vehicle cooling system.

Figure 2-9. Dirty Water can be Suitable for Radiators.

Avoid disease or deliberately polluted water by taking drinking water only from approved sources. Guard against pollution of water sources. If rationing is in effect, issue water under close supervision of officers and noncommissioned officers.

You cannot train soldiers to adjust permanently to a decreased water intake. An acclimatized soldier will need as much if not more water than the non-acclimatized as he sweats more readily. If the ration is not sufficient, there is no alternative but to reduce physical activity or restrict it to the cooler parts of the day. To retain maximum efficiency, make up any temporary deficiency. In very hot conditions it is better to take smaller quantities of water often rather than large quantities occasionally. The latter case leads to waste by causing excessive sweating and may induce heat cramps. As activities or conditions become more severe, you should increase water intake accordingly. The optimum drinking water temperature is between 50 and 60 degrees Fahrenheit (10 and 15. 5 degrees Centigrade). Lister bags or even wet cloth around metal containers helps to cool water.

(7) Dehydration. During high desert temperatures, a resting man (Figure 2-10) may lose as much as a pint of water per hour by sweating.

Figure 2-10. A Warning of Dehydration.

Sweat may not be noticeable in very high temperatures and low humidity; it evaporates so fast the skin appears dry. Whenever possible, retain sweat on the skin to improve the cooling process. The only way to do this is to avoid direct sun on the skin. This is the most important reason desert soldiers must remain fully clothed. When a soldier works, his water loss through sweating (and after requirement for replenishment) increases in proportion to the amount of work done.

Thirst is not an adequate warning of dehydration. You may not feel the sensation until there is a body deficit of one to two quarts of water. Very dark urine is often a warning of dehydration. Encourage soldiers to always drink their requirement readily. If necessary, coerce soldiers to drink more than they think necessary, especially during periods of acclimatization. Packets of artificial fruit flavoring will encourage consumption due to the variety of pleasant tastes.

i. Affect on Eating Habits. Fresh fruit and ice cream raise men's spirits and brighten menus on long maneuvers. It is a problem to transport and preserve these foods in the desert heat, but the payoff in improved morale is worth the trouble. Certain foods, though hard to keep under desert conditions, have intangible value in the field. They should be set aside before an operation for shipment to key elements at the right time.

Alcohol lessens resistance to heat due to its dehydrating effect. Avoid smoking, particularly during the day. It increases the desire for water.

Units performing sustained heavy activities such as a forced march or digging in, may need more than three gallons of drinking water per person at 80 degrees Wet Bulb Globe Temperature Index. Any increase in the stress will increase this need.

j. Salt. Salt in correct proportions is vital to the human body. However, the more a man sweats, the more salt he loses. The issue ration has enough salt for a soldier drinking up to 4 quarts of water per day. Unacclimatized soldiers need additional salt during their first few days of exposure and all soldiers need additional salt when sweating heavily. The salt requirement guide is shown in paragraph 2b of lesson 1.

If the water demand to balance sweat loss rises (you sweat more), extra salt must be taken under medical direction. However, too much salt may cause increased thirst, a feeling of sickness, and can be dangerous. To avoid this, follow these general rules:

You should take extra salt only in proportion to the water you drink.

Strictly control the quantity taken, in any form, according to medical advice.

Do not use salt tablets unless dissolved into a solution, such as two tablets per one-quart canteen.

Salt all drinking water to a concentration of 0. 1 percent. This is a convenient way to provide additional salt when the salt in food is not adequate. Test water before adding salt. Some sources are already saline, especially those close to the sea.

k. Clothing and Necessities. Standard light-weight clothing is suitable for desert operations. Although, it should be a camouflage color, not fatigue green. Figure 2-11 shows some guidelines on how to dress.

Each soldier should have the following equipment:

Sweater, field jacket, a woolen scarf for cold and night use and a cotton one for day use.

Sleeping bag.

Chapstick (personnel allergic to chapsticks should use vaseline), anti-sunburn ointment, salt tablets, foot powder, and insect repellant. Eye lotion or drops can also be useful.

Goggles and sunglasses. These must not hinder peripheral vision. Keep them in a sealed case to prevent scratching them when they are not in use.

A lensatic compass, if available.

Web belt with two-quart canteen attached. Bottled water.

Combat boots.

Figure 2-11. How to Dress.

Wear nonstarched long sleeve shirt and full length trousers, tucked into combat boots. However, tankers and field and air-defense artillerymen live in an environment of oils and greases with high risk of burns if enemy fire hits their vehicles. They may require special clothing, which nonetheless must be able to "breathe. " You should not wear jungle boots since sand will sift into them. Wear a scarf or triangular bandage loosely around your neck. Use it to protect your face during sand storms, as a sweat rag, and to protect much of your face and neck against sand and sun. The kevlar helmet, with headband properly adjusted, offers enough airspace for air circulation and gives a certain amount of eyeshade and neck protection.

(1) Eye Protection. The importance of wearing eye protection in the desert cannot be overstressed. Some people prefer sunglasses, others like goggles. Both have advantages and disadvantages, but both accomplish the goal of keeping out direct and reflected sunlight and reducing the numbing effect of cold winter winds.

(2) Foot Care. Combat boots will wear out quickly in desert terrain, especially if it is rocky. The leather will dry out and crack unless you apply a non-greasy mixture such as saddle soap.

NOTE:

Check your feet daily-change socks frequently!

(3) Gloves. Vehicle exteriors and tools can get extremely hot when exposed to direct sunlight even for short periods. Crew members and maintenance personnel must wear gloves to prevent first and second degree burns.

l. Hygiene and Sanitation. FM 21-10 covers hygiene and sanitation in detail. This paragraph highlights some of the points that are of special importance to the commander in the desert.

(1) Personal Hygiene. Maintain the proper standards of personal hygiene, not only as a deterrent to disease but as a reinforcement to discipline and morale. Insist upon daily shaving and bathing if water is available. Use electric razors, adapted to run from a vehicle power source, instead of "wet shaves. " It is especially important to clean the areas of your body that sweat heavily. Change your underwear frequently and use foot powder often. A laundry and bath point, or sufficient water may not be available. Nevertheless, troops can clean themselves with sponge baths, solution-impregnated pads, a damp rag, or even a dry, clean cloth.

(2) Clothing Care. Although difficult to do, you must keep your clothing as clean as possible by washing in any available surplus water. When water is not available, airing and sunning clothing will help to kill bacteria.

(3) Health. Check troops for signs of injury, no matter how slight. The dirt of the desert fly and insects can cause infection of minor cuts and scratches. Small quantities of disinfectant in washing water can reduce the chance of infection.

Minor sickness can have serious effects in the desert. Prickly heat and diarrhea, for example, can upset part of the sweating mechanism and increase water loss. This can make the soldier more prone to heat illnesses. The buddy system ensures these problems are given prompt attention before they incapacitate individuals.

(4) Sanitation. Intestinal diseases can easily increase in the desert. Proper mess sanitation is essential. Do not bury garbage within 100 feet (30. 48 meters) of any source of water used for cooking or drinking. The burial area should be at least 30 yards (27. 43 meters) away from the kitchen. Garbage pits 4 X 4 X 4 feet (1. 2 X 1. 2 X 1. 2 meters) are suitable for one day for a unit of 100 men. Do not fill them more than one foot (30 centimeters) from the top.

Use trench-type latrines if the soil is suitable. You must dig deep, as shallow latrines become exposed in areas of shifting sand. Plan to locate them at least 100 yards (91 meters) from unit messes and 100 yards from water sources. When latrines become filled to within one foot of the surface, close them. Excess dirt must form a mound one foot (30 centimeters) high. Spray the ground surface, two feet (60 centimeters) on either side, with an approved pesticide. You must then mark the location with a sign "Closed Latrine" and the date. Use lime for flies.

2. Environmental Effects on Equipment.

Key characteristics of the desert environment that may adversely affect equipment used in the desert are:

Trafficability.

Heat.

Radiant light.

Dust and sand.

Humidity.

Temperature variation.

Static electricity.

Winds.

The relative importance of each characteristic varies from desert to desert. Humidity, for example, though disregarded in most deserts, is important in the Persian Gulf.

a. Trafficability. Terrain varies from nearly flat, with high trafficability, to lava beds and salt marshes with little or no trafficability. Well trained drivers can judge terrain so they can select the best method of overcoming various conditions.

Track vehicles are best-suited for desert operations. Though, wheel vehicles go many places that track vehicles can go, their much lower average speed in poor terrain may be unacceptable during some operations. Equip your vehicles with extra fan belts, tires, and other items apt to malfunction. Add tow ropes (if not equipped with a winch), extra water cans, desert camouflage nets, air recognition panels, signal mirrors, and a tarpaulin to protect the crew from the sun. Wheel vehicles should carry spurs, mats, or channels as appropriate.

The harsh environment requires a very high standard of maintenance. You may have to perform this maintenance well away from specialized support personnel. Therefore, operators must be fully trained in operating and maintaining their equipment. Some types of terrain can have a severe effect on suspension and transmission systems, especially those of wheel vehicles. Tanks will often tend to throw tracks on rocks. You should significantly increase the unit PLL of tires. Sand temperatures of 165 degrees Fahrenheit (73. 89 degrees Centigrade) are extremely detrimental to rubber and weaken resistance to sharp rocks and plant spines. When performing routine maintenance, check for undue wear of items affected by mileage such as wheels, steering, track wedge bolts and sprocket nuts, and transmission shafts. Check the items when completing before-, and after-operation maintenance.

b. Heat. Vehicle cooling and lubrication systems are interdependent, and malfunction by one will rapidly place the other under severe strain. All types of engines are apt to overheat to some degree, leading to excessive wear and ultimately leaking oil seals in the power packs. Commanders should be aware which vehicle types are prone to excessive overheating; and ensure troops apply extra care to their maintenance.

CAUTION

DO NOT TOUCH EXPOSED METAL WITH YOUR BARE HANDS. IT IS VERY HOT.

Temperature gauges will read between 10 to 20 degrees hotter than normal. Don't panic if your average operating temperature is 180 degrees, and when operating your vehicle, the gauge shows 200 degrees. Monitor the gauge. If the temperature keeps rising, put the vehicle in neutral and "rev" the engine up to approximately 1,200 RPMs until the gauge drops back down.

(1) Cooling systems. You must keep radiators and air flow areas around engines clean and free of debris and other obstructions. You should fit water cooled engines with condensers to avoid waste as steam through the overflow pipe. Keep cooling hoses tight (a drip a second is seven gallons in 24 hours). Operators should not remove hood side panels from engine compartments while the engine is running since this will cause turbulence, leading to ineffective cooling. Operations in hot weather or on rough terrain increase the chances an engine will overheat. Lengthy high-speed operation, hard-pulling operations, and low-gear negotiation of steep grades or soft sand have caused overheating. Cooling system efficiency drops with the calcification of water channels caused by use of water with high mineral content. Poor cooling also will result from dirt between radiator cooling fans.

Avoid continuous use of vehicles in low gear range. Replenish radiators with potable water except in emergencies. Blow dirt off radiators with compressed air or a jet of water.

(2) Lubrication. Check oil frequently for required levels (too high may be as bad as too low). Check that seals are not leaking, and oil consumption is not higher than normal.

(3) Wood. Wood shrinks in a high temperature, low humidity environment. Equipment such as axes carried on track vehicles can become safety hazards as heads are likely to fly off shrunken handles. You must periodically dampen such items to reduce shrinkage.

(4) Communication Equipment. Dust affects communication equipment such as amplifiers and radio teletype sets. The latter, especially is prone to damage due to its oil lubrication, so you should use dust covers whenever possible. Some receiver-transmitters have ventilating ports, and channels that can get clogged with dust. You must check these regularly and keep them clean to prevent overheating.

(5) Radios. You must keep all radios, regardless of type, COOL and CLEAN. Place them in the shade and in a ventilated area whenever possible. If water is available, lay a damp towel on top of the radios, making sure you don't block the air vents. Radio operators should get a paint brush to keep radios clean. Desert tactics require dispersion, but the environment is likely to degrade transmission ranges. This degradation is most likely to occur in the hottest part of the day. If you start to lose contact, especially if noon is approaching, you must have alternate ways to communicate.

Some radios automatically switch on their second blower fan if their temperature rises too high. This normally only happens in temperate climates when they are transmitting. This may disturb soldiers unaccustomed to the environment but is quite normal as are the frequent squelch bursts. AM RF amplifiers are liable to severely overheat and burn out. Troops should turn on such equipment only when necessary (they do not affect receiving). Since they take about 90 seconds to reach the operating mode, the SOP of units using the equipment should allow for delays in replying.

(6) Thermal Cut-outs. Fitted to some items of equipment are thermal cut-outs, which open circuit breakers when equipment begins to overheat. High ambient temperatures cause overheating. You can partly avoid overheating an item by keeping it in shade and wrapping it in wet cloth to maintain a lower temperature by evaporation.

(7) Medical Supplies. Continually protect medical supplies, which deteriorate rapidly, during movement and at operation sites where extremely hot temperatures exist.

(8) Instruments. Precision instruments such as range finders may require adjustment several times during the desert day depending on temperature variation.

c. High Failure Repair Parts. Dust, sand, rough terrain and temperature extremes cause an estimated 50 percent increase in repair parts required to support a combat unit. In general, parts subject to friction fail with greater frequency in the desert than under U. S. or European conditions. In this category are practically all engine parts, brake shoes, upper and lower control bushings, wheel bearings, and carburetors. Preventive maintenance can forestall carburetor failure. Vehicles parked for long periods in the sun tend to sustain damage to exposed plastic and rubberlike dashboard tops, wipers, and trim. Rubber seals are prone to dry rot. A combination of heat and dryness makes plastic parts in the engine compartment particularly susceptible to breakage.

Mechanics will need additional stocks of friction-bearing parts, plastic and rubber parts, and rubber seals. Also, cracking and breaking of cast metal parts is common due to constant excessive vibration during operations.

On rocky deserts, the M54 five-ton truck is prone to air hydraulic cylinder failure and power-steering leaks. Tire consumption is very high. As well as increasing the unit PLL of tires, all vehicles must carry one spare tire or preferable two spare tires. About one of every three vehicles should carry jumper cables to provide for servicing dead batteries.

d. Batteries. Batteries do not hold their charge efficiently in intense heat. You will have to change battery specific gravity (sg) to adjust to the desert environment. The unit can either adjust its electrolyte to 1.200-1.225 sg or obtain sulfuric acid, electrolyte FSN-904-9372 with a specific gravity of 1.2085-1.2185. It also may be necessary to adjust the battery specific gravity to compensate for cold nights. You must keep batteries full, but not overfilled, and you should carry a reserve of distilled water. Keep air vents clean, or vapors may build up pressure and cause the battery to explode. Set voltage regulators as low as practical. You must increase dry battery supplies to offset a high attrition rate caused by heat exposure.

Portable training devices and life support equipment rely on batteries. Keep batteries out of direct sunlight. Otherwise, they will malfunction frequently. Heat quickly discharges the stored energy in batteries. Alternatives, such as power generators, also can cause problems. When exposed to extreme heat, wind, and windblown sand, they become a maintenance nightmare. Specific devices immobilized by electrical problems for the above reasons include target mechanisms, radios, and remote control units. Vehicle batteries have gone dead after short periods of vehicle inactivity (5 to 10 days). Whenever possible, hard-wire stationary electrical devices to commercial power sources. Exercise vehicles regularly.

e. Pressure. Severe heat increases pressure in closed pressurized systems such as the M2 Fire Burner unit and increases volume of liquids. Be sure that the working pressure of all equipment is within safety limits.

CAUTION

BE CAREFUL WHEN REMOVING ITEMS SUCH AS FILLER CAPS!

Air and all fluids expand and contract according to temperature. If you inflate tires to the correct pressure during the cool of night, they may burst during the heat of day. If you fill fuel tanks to the brim at night, they will overflow at midday. Servicing these items during the heat of day can result in under-pressures, overheating of tires and a lack of endurance if the fuel tanks are not filled to correct levels. You must check air pressure when equipment is operating at an efficient working temperature. You must fill fuel tanks to their correct capacity as defined in the appropriate technical manual.

f. Dust, Sand and Winds. Dust and sand are probably the greatest danger to the efficient functioning of equipment in the desert. It is almost impossible to avoid particles settling on moving parts and acting as an abrasive.

CAUTION

DON'T LET SAND MIX WITH OIL. LIKE A GRINDING WHEEL, IT CAN WEAR METAL.

(1) Sand Accumulation. Sand and dirt can easily accumulate in hull bottoms of armored vehicles. This accumulation, combined with condensation or oil, can cause jamming of control linkages. Sand at the air bleeder valve can inhibit heat from escaping from the transmission and result in damage to the transmission. The operator's checks and services increase in importance in this environment.

(2) Sand and Mechanical Equipment. Lubrication must be the correct viscosity for the temperature and kept to the absolute minimum in the case of exposed or semi-exposed moving parts. Sand mixed with oil forms an abrasive paste. Frequently check critical items like lube fittings. If they are missing, sand will enter the housing causing bearing failure. Teflon bearings require constant inspection to ensure that the coating is not being removed. Maintenance of engines is critical in the desert. There is a possibility of sand or dust entering the cylinders or their moving parts when the equipment is stripped. It is essential to have screens against flying sand (which also will provide shade for mechanics). You may employ used oil to soak the surrounding ground or cover the sand with rocks to bind it down. Mechanics must keep their tools clean.

CAUTION

USING HIGH-PRESSURE HOSES MAY FORCE SAND AND DUST INTO SEALS AND BEARINGS.

(3) Winds. Desert winds by their velocity alone can be very destructive to large and light materiel such as aircraft, tentage, and antenna systems. To minimize the possibility of wind damage, you should give materiel such terrain protection as is available. Also you should firmly picket your equipment to the ground.

g. Static Electricity. Atmospheric conditions coupled with an inability to "ground out" due to dryness of the terrain, causes static electricity, which is prevalent in the desert. It is particularly likely with aircraft or vehicles having no conductor contact with the soil. You may cause a spark when making contact between separate materials that have a difference of electrical potential. If flammable gases are present, they may explode and cause a fire. Establish a metal circuit between fuel tankers and vehicles being refueled before, and during refueling. Ground both of them (for example, by a cable and picket or by a crowbar). A further hazard of static electricitys is with helicopter sling loads. Before loading, allow the hook to touch ground, and ground a load before unhooking. You must exercise care when handling and transporting unlike materials that might generate static electricity. It is also necessary to turn off all switches, uncouple electrical connectors, and ground vehicle or aircraft electrically-operated weapons systems before rearming.

h. Maintenance. Dust and sand easily cause failure of such items as cyclic microphone switches, radio and signal distribution panels, circuit breakers and collective triggers. The fine grit causes small electrical motors to burn out. Wheel and flight control bearings may require daily cleaning and repacking. Flush engines daily. Check rotor heads frequently. They have less life than in temperate climates. Pay particular attention to sand-caused wear on rotor heads, leading edges of rotor blades, and exposed flight controls. More than 200 pounds of dirt has been known to accumulate in the fuselage area of helicopters operating in these conditions. You must routinely check and clean these areas to prevent a pound-for-pound reduction in aircraft lift capability.

(1) Electrical Insulation. Wind-blown sand and grit will damage electrical wire insulation over time. Protect all cables that are likely to be damaged with tape before insulation becomes worn. Sand also will find its way into parts of items such as "spaghetti cord" plugs, either preventing electrical contact or making it impossible to join the plugs together. You should carry a brush, such as an old toothbrush, to brush out such items before joining them together.

(2) Wire Deterioration and Usage. Use field wire (WD-1) to supplement 32-pair wire in the SANG field telephone system. Problems arise in attempting to maintain a continuous circuit and a reliable land-line communications system. Heavy vehicles driving over buried wire cause breaks and cuts. Dry rot on insulation exposes wire. It then will not conduct, or, at best, conducts poorly, resulting in dead or intermittently operational lines. Also, irregular tension on lines causes connections to pull away, breaking the communications link.

Shielded cable is more sturdy and reliable than wire presently used by the SANG. Shielded cable is less prone to the problems listed above, and would more effectively maintain telephone communications under desert conditions.

(3) Rubber Deterioration. Areas of packed sand and rock and lava beds occur more frequently in Saudi Arabia than in the soft sand desert imagined by many Westerners. This terrain shortens tire life. During each three-day field training exercise it underwent in 1982, the Saudi Arabian National Guard (SANG) modernized 5th Artillery Battery registered a flat tire rate of 40 percent. The rate is about standard for all units. Most flats are attributable to the wear and tear of off-road travel rather than to road heat, high temperature, dryness, potholes, or abuse. A sharp rock itself rarely punctures a tire outright, but over a short time, it weakens the tire's structure by constant wear on the tread. Tire problems may be difficult to detect when a vehicle is moving fast over rough terrain. A simple, repairable puncture can result in a ruined tire and a bent rim. It is common to see large chunks of tread ripped away after travel over lava rock. Exercise extra care in driving over lava patches and rough ground. Check tires frequently for signs of wear and cuts. This will necessitate slower movement and tighter control over column spacing to prevent bunching at obstacles.

(4) Filtration. It takes comparatively little dirt to block a fuel line, and compression-ignition engines depend on clean air. Examine air cleaners on every type of equipment and clean them at frequent intervals. The exact interval depends on the operating conditions but should be at least daily. Use filters when refueling any type of vehicle. Keep the gap covered between the nozzle and the fuel tank filler. Fuel filters will require frequent cleaning. Oil filters will require replacement more frequently than usual. Engine oils will require changing more often than in temperate climates.

NOTE:

Check all filters often.

(5) Vehicle Filtering Systems. Air, fuel, and oil filters require daily servicing in the desert. Ambient air that appears clean is actually laden with fine dust, even on a clear day. Replace all filters more frequently than recommended. Close attention to filters pays in fewer maintenance problems. It is not uncommon for an air filter to become completely useless in 3 days even with daily or more often cleaning. Stock greater numbers of filters, of all types, for use in desert operations.

(6) Vehicle Lubrication. Change oil about twice as often as recommended, not only because grit accumulates in the oil pan but also because uncombusted low-octane fuel seeps down the cylinder walls and dilutes the reservoir. Diluted oil lubricates and cools less effectively, and evaporates at high temperatures generated during engine operation, necessitating more frequent topping up. High-grade 20W-50 oil has served well in desert conditions. Change oil and lubricate undercarriage points more frequently to prolong engine and vehicle life.

(7) Fuel Contamination. One source of contaminated fuel is the reuse of gasoline tankers by the SANG to transport or store diesel fuel, and vice versa, without first flushing the tanks. The Saudi government-owned fuel company, Petromin, controls the only facility in the country for flushing out tankers. Because there is no other place to perform this service, operational necessity often forces drivers to skip this important procedure. If a unit is required to flush a tanker to transport a different product, do not include the availability of local facilities in the planning.

(8) POL Storage. Operation of mechanized forces in the desert will require many POL storage sites. In most desert areas in Saudi Arabia, storage systems are antiquated. Devices for determining the state of POL contamination may be lacking. As an example, local systems are not equipped with sampling and gauging hatches. Standard U. S. sample beakers will not fit down refill hatches. The local storage tanks also have no strapping charts for determining the precise volume from tank fluid levels. Bottom samples cannot be drawn up to test for contamination. It is not possible to determine the precise volume of fuel in local storage tanks or to determine the degree of contamination without special equipment.

i. Vehicle Recovery Operations. You can free a car or truck can from soft sand by letting about one fourth of the air out of the trapped tires. Reinflate when freed. You can also use "Sand ladders" made of reinforcing rods welded to angle irons. They are about two feet long and the width of a truck tire. You may need a shovel to free sand from around the trapped tires before the ladders can be inserted.

Carry an air pump or sand ladders and a shovel. If available, carry all three. (Sand ladders are usually carried in pairs. ) Although underinflated, these improve vehicle traction in the desert. Tires are generally kept at normal road pressure to avoid damage to sidewalls from sharp rocks and to cut down on wear and tear. Increase the numbers of tow bars, ropes and matting in the unit and equip all tactical wheeled vehicles with winches (Note: Winching out a stuck vehicle has proven to be the most effective means of recovery). Another extrication procedure applicable to light vehicles stuck in very fine sand is the "rocking method. " Pile sand around all four tires. Three to four men then violently "rock" the vehicle from side to side forcing the vehicle to bounce as high as possible. As the vehicle's weight shifts from side to side, the piled sand will flow under the tires of the vehicle. Eventually, the vehicle will rise back to the level surface.

j. Effect of the Desert on Vehicle Mobility The choice of vehicle used in a desert operation has less to do with mobility than the skill of the driver. An agile vehicle will sink up to the hubs if its driver insists on gunning the engine in soft sand. On the other hand, a U. S. Dodge truck made for use on blacktop will perform acceptably offroad when operated by a driver adept at gearing, speed control, braking, and steering. For all-around maneuver-ability regardless of driver performance, the British Leyland Land Rover is high on the list, and other support vehicles (U. S. Dodge and Austrian Steyr trucks) are rated below that. This assumes operation in a "mixed" desert of soft sand, packed sand, and rock. There is no resident experience in operating in dunes. However, it is suspected that, in extensive stretches of soft sand, support vehicles would be greatly slowed by bad footing. Sand and dust and "cap rock" that support the occasional vehicle can become impassable if several vehicles use the same route. The dust cloud also presents a safety problem in reduced visibility for vehicles following in a column.

Well-trained drivers can maneuver a wide variety of vehicles over "mixed" desert without getting stuck. The majority of cross-desert travel should be on line or in echelon. Following another vehicle's tracks is not recommended except when crossing dry washes or as restricted by the topography.

k. Vehicular Desert Survival Kit. Military vehicles operating in a desert environment must have a higher degree of self-sufficiency than you would normally expect in a different environment due to the environmental extremes encountered.

Equip vehicles with the following:

OVE, to include a small general tool kit.

Flashlight and highway reflector (triangular).

Fire extinguisher.

Compass, binoculars and maps.

Communications equipment.

Shovel, sand ladders and tow rope/cable (at least 25 feet [7. 6 meters] long).

Five gallons (18. 9 liters) of water per vehicle occupant.

Personal food, clothing and equipment.

Siphoning hose (1/2-inch outside diameter by 6 feet) (1. 27 centimeter diameter by 1. 83 meters) and funnel.

Slave cables (one for each group of vehicles).

Mounted vehicular air compressor with air reservoir (150 psi) and sufficient air hose.

Jack support plate (1 foot by 1 foot piece of metal) (30 by 30 centimeter piece of metal).

Consumables, to include oil, radiator hoses, fan belts, heavy duty tape, air and gas filters, twine, annealed wire.

l. Employment of Army Aircraft. Flying time and performance of helicopters is degraded as the altitude and heat increases. Aircraft canopies can bubble under direct heat, so you should cover them when not in use. Army aircraft may be employed in the desert as in temperate climates, within limits imposed by enemy long-range observation and air-defense fires. Do not move helicopters on the ground under their own power. Pushed or tow them by men or vehicles. You should restrict run-ups to the minimum time. They should take place on rock, oiled or wet sand if available. Always, cover all apertures (pitot tubes, for example) of aircraft not in use. Hovering close to the ground will lead to sand-ingestion by the engine, possible observation of dust clouds by the enemy, or disorientation of the pilot due to flying sand, particularly at night.

PART D - PREPARATION FOR DESERT OPERATIONS

Most U. S. Army soldiers and units are unaccustomed to operating in a desert environment. Therefore, they must make extensive preparations before conducting desert operations.

1. Factors when Preparing for Desert Operations.

When a unit is alerted for operations in a desert environment, the commander must first consider or find answers to some or all of the following questions:

To what country is the unit going?

What are the climatic and terrain conditions of that country?

By what date is the unit to be ready to move?

What areas in the United States most closely resemble the country?

Are training areas and ranges present and available in those areas? If not, what alternative arrangements can you make?

When are training areas and ranges available to the unit, either alone or as a part of a larger force? What arrangements must you make to move personnel and equipment to training areas?

Will the unit be taking its own equipment overseas? If so, when will the equipment be deployed?

If unit equipment is being sent overseas and any items of it require modification (including camouflage painting) when is this work to be done and how long will it take?

What special equipment does the unit require for desert operations? What arrangements do you need to make to deliver this equipment, and when will it arrive?

What special maintenance does your unit need to accomplish for weapons and equipment before deploying to a desert environment?

Are there personnel in the unit who

- are desert warfare instructors?

- have any experience in desert conditions?

- can speak any language of the host country, and if so with what proficiency? Is there any requirement to increase that number and can you do it in the available time frame?

What assistance is available for training:

- What instructors are available from outside the unit?

- What training aids are needed and what is available?

What larger force will the unit be with? Do they have any special SOPs for desert war? If not, are they producing any?

Are all personnel physically fit (this will affect the acclimatization period)?

How many soldiers are nondeployable? They must be replaced.

What information is available about the enemy in terms of strength, organization, equipment, and tactics.

What information is available about allied forces in the area of operations?

What type of operations does the command expect?

What is the composition of the advance party and when do they leave?

Once the commander answers these questions, he must develop a program to bring his unit to a level where it is fully capable of operating successfully in harsh desert conditions. To do this, it is first necessary to set a list of priorities for both individual and unit training. The list of training priorities in Figure 2-12 is only a guide. Modify them as necessary depending on the state of readiness of the unit when first alerted for desert employment.

It is important to remember that a unit likely will be committed shortly after arrival in the area of operations. Take maximum advantage of the preparation time available to the unit. You can do much unit training and some individual training in garrison. You can integrate some individual training subjects with unit training. Night operations will be a common occurrence in desert warfare and so you must emphasize training to fight at night as much as in the day.

Figure 2-12. Training Priorities.

2. Individual Training.

The object of individual training is to prepare the individual for operations in a desert environment. This requires both mental and physical preparation.

In order to fight and survive in desert operations, soldiers must fully understand the desert environment. Where practicable, they should be acclimatized before arrival in the area of operations. The requirement for acclimatization will vary slightly between individuals, but physical conditioning (fit men acclimatize more easily) is a part of the acclimatization process. Acclimatization should take place in conditions that are similar, or slightly more strenuous, than those of the prospective area of operations.

a. Camouflage and Concealment. You may divide camouflage and concealment training into concealment from the ground (including the need to avoid enemy remote sensors (REMS) and concealment from the air). Pay particular attention to movement, color, shadow, and deception. Camouflage and concealment is equally important for combat service support soldiers and combat and combat support soldiers.

b. Survival, Evasion, and Escape. Convincing a soldier that he is capable of surviving in the desert environment will do more than almost any other aspect of training to strengthen his self-confidence, and thus his morale. Include the following points in desert survival, evasion, and escape training:

Poisoned wells will be unlikely. Some wells in the North African desert, however, have such strong concentrations of mineral salts that water taken from them may lead to intestinal irritation and subsequent illness.

Teach survival navigation to all personnel. Do not confuse survival navigation with celestial navigation, which is taught to specialists for unit navigation.

Although, water is the most important factor in survival, a soldier should not discard his personal weapon or navigational equipment except in the most extreme circumstances.

c. Desert Living. Following minimum preliminary training in garrison, troops can practice desert living in the field, often as part of unit training. Cover important aspects such as

the effects of heat, including possible dehydration and salt loss. The need to maintain the body fluid level.

maintenance of morale and the ability of the individual to accept the challenge of the desert. Self discipline and common sense.

environmental effects such as those of sand, wind, and light.

water discipline.

first aid for heat illnesses. Issue each soldier a memory aid card showing symptoms and immediate treatment.

hygiene and sanitation.

correct clothing and equipment, including how to wear and maintain clothing.

the effects of temperature variation.

precautions against snakes. (See Part 2).

To the extent possible, the commander should train his unit in terrain and environmental conditions similar to what he expects to find in the operational area. It would be both short sighted and dangerous for example, to allow unlimited water use, such as that use for bathing, if the expected operational area is totally without water. To further accustom the soldiers to hardships, keep to a minimum any contact with garrison or other urban areas, except for medical or welfare reasons. Once field training has started, bring necessary supplies to field locations. Don't permit items that are unlikely to be available in the operational area (commercial soft drinks and foods). To gain the maximum value from this training, cut off the unit from all other human contact for the duration of the field exercises.

d. Enemy Organizations and Tactics. You can teach this in garrison on sand tables and map maneuvers, followed by Tactical Exercises Without Troops (TEWT) and unit exercises in the field. If enemy equipment is available, bring it to the unit for firsthand study.

e. Desert Navigation. Although maps used in field training will be those of the local area, obtain enough maps of the operational area to allow distribution for study and possible use during garrison training. This is particularly important if the operational maps use foreign words to describe terrain, such as wadi, summan, hidiba, and dikaka.

Current equipment employed by units to determine their position in the desert is the vehicle dead-reckoning navigation set. This set contains items such as protractors, a lensatic compass, and a sun compass including its necessary tables. Use it to determine approximate magnetic and celestial azimuths and for plotting approximate positions determined by dead reckoning. The sun compass also permits a unit to maneuver on a constant azimuth without the navigator dismounting continually to take magnetic bearings.

The two types of compass are complementary. The sun compass is unaffected by its surroundings, easy to read but requires a higher level of training. You cannot use it when the sky is overcast, or at night. You can use the magnetic (lensatic) compass day or night provided its individual compass error and the local magnetic deviation are known. However, a magnetic compass may not be accurate when used from a vehicle. A magnetic compass may not be adequate on its own when using dead reckoning at night. You may need to employ trained navigators who can use sextants to establish reasonably accurate positions by the stars. Train your navigators on dead reckoning, sun compass, and bubble sextant (if available).

Even if equipped with sophisticated equipment, the unit would be prudent to train a nucleus of personnel on alternative methods. Basic navigation training (including the sextant) takes about 10 days. The use of the vehicle odometer may also be helpful. By multiplying the miles covered by . 62, a unit can convert the odometer miles to kilometers.

f. Operational Area (Host Country). A description of the host country should cover only those facts that apply to forthcoming operations, for example:

Geographic description.

Climate (throughout the year).

Population density.

Industry and agriculture.

Language(s) (phrase books may be issued).

Communications and transportation network.

Important customs and the behavior expected of U. S. Army personnel. (These can be very important: speaking to a woman in some Arab countries, for example, can be offensive to the local inhabitants).

The armed forces (and possibly police), including organization, equipment, and rank structure.

The situation that has led to the introduction of U. S. forces and why U. S. forces are being introduced. No soldier should have to question why he is fighting for a country other than his own, if this is the case.

Treatment of these subjects will vary according to category. Personnel who need additional information such as the country's history, can find it in the appropriate DA 550 series pamphlet.

g. Desert Maneuvers. The influence of the desert environment on tactical operations should first be taught as a theoretical subject for a limited number of leaders and commanders, down to platoon level. Leaders then train their own units during unit training. The emphasis should be on small unit tactics, including combined arms operations. Cover the following additional subject matter:

Terrain in the operational area, emphasizing differences and similarities with the training areas the units will use.

Application of concealment, using terrain and artificial means such as smoke; the application of maneuver techniques.

Mobility in the desert.

Command and control techniques for desert operations.

Navigation and station-keeping.

Conduct of fire in desert operations.

Resupply during desert operations.

h. Desert Terrain Appreciation. Leaders should focus on the effects of different types of desert terrain on capabilities and limitations of unit equipment. You need to highlight the impact of the terrain in the likely operational area on vehicular trafficability, fields of fire, and observation. When possible, crews and small unit leaders should learn to appreciate desert terrain from practical experience in terrain as nearly similar as possible to that in the likely combat zone.

i. Medical Training Considerations. The unit surgeon can provide you with valuable information on the medical implications of operations in this environment. He also can advise unit commanders on training of preventive medicine concepts essential to minimize nonbattle injuries due to environmental factors. These casualties, due to lack of consideration of preventive medicine concepts, can far outnumber combat casualties.

j. Special Equipment Techniques. The environment, as described earlier, will affect nearly all equipment in one way or another. The purpose of this training is to train operators. Training should include:

Likely affect on the equipment they operate,

Efficient operations of the equipment within limits imposed by the environment, including tactical limitations of the equipment. For example, helicopters may have difficulties flying NOE; you normally operate radios on reduced output due to the environment and enemy ECM.

Preventive maintenance, employing any special techniques required by the desert environment. The appropriate equipment technical manual or lubrication order provides specific information concerning hot climate operations and maintenance.

Basic desert recovery and repair techniques, including defensive measures, and camouflage required during recovery and repair operations,

Orient instruction towards the expected operational area. For example, it is possible to keep radios cool by using ice packs; but you will teach a false lesson if ice packs are not going to be available in the area of operations.

k. Equipment Recognition. You can divide this subject into four categories:

(1) Enemy ground equipment and helicopters.

(2) Enemy aircraft.

(3) Allied ground equipment and helicopters.

(4) Allied aircraft.

The order of priority and detail of training will vary according to the unit, the degree of equipment identification already known, and individual specialty. The first priority for air defense equipment operators, for example, will be to recognize enemy and allied aircraft visually. A tanker needs to be able to identify enemy ground equipment, but not necessarily over the wide span required by a soldier in military intelligence. Visual recognition will always be a higher priority than sound identification, but teach the latter if you have time and equipment. Place special emphasis on allied equipment both ground and air. If both allies and the enemy have similar equipment, you must teach separate national identification markings. The command must train everybody in vehicle recognition, because combat service support and combat support units as well as combat units may have to protect themselves against an enemy breakthrough.

l. Special Maintenance and Supply Techniques for Staff and Leaders. Special maintenance techniques you need to address are the same as those taught to specialists but need only emphasize aspects that ordinarily require control, supervision, or affect the employment of equipment in desert terrain. This training should include any special handling techniques required in the operational area, appropriate technical manuals and training circulars as background. Modify training according to:

Modified table of organization and equipment (MTOE) and mission of the unit.

Supply situation expected in the area of operations.

Capabilities of logistic units likely to support unit operations with special attention given to units not normally found in conventional operations (well-drilling teams, transportation cargo carrier companies, for example).

m. Nuclear Biological and Chemical (NBC) Training. Wearing protective clothing and masks in the desert environment will make a person extremely uncomfortable. Soldiers should not participate in strenuous activity while wearing protective clothing until they are acclimatized. Emphasized the following points:

The value of being uncomfortable rather than dead.

The need to avoid heat illness by

- reducing the labor rate to the minimum, and delaying work until cooler hours.

- maintaining proper body water and salt levels, particularly during a time of chemical threat.

- being vigilant to detect the first symptoms of heat illness in others.

- the requirement to increase operational times as troops will move more slowly when wearing protective clothing.

n. Tactical Deception Operations for Staff and Leaders. The enemy directs its tactical operations based on peculiarities of key personnel, the intelligence picture of the friendly forces, the area of operations, and doctrine. The enemy uses many bits and pieces of interrelated intelligence for composing their picture of friendly force capabilities, limitations, intentions, and actions. By implementing OPSEC procedures, friendly forces can succeed in limiting (blanking out) the enemy's capability to produce accurate intelligence. The enemy continuously tries to augment the intelligence collection capability, knowing that friendly forces can limit enemy intelligence collection assets. Thus, while friendly OPSEC efforts identify and limit enemy efforts to collect accurate intelligence information, our intelligence efforts must focus concurrently on the planned deception of the enemy.

Some important aspects about deception that you should remember are:

Make use of the natural environment, for example, create false dust clouds to mislead the enemy as to the intentions of the friendly force.

The enemy will attempt to deceive as well, so the friendly force must clearly deceive without being deceived.

Plan your deception operations and coordinate them with the force headquarters planning the operation, normally no lower than division. In any event, the division should limit those deception activities that can be undertaken by its subordinate units without the approval of division headquarters.

As for any other operation, operation security measures must be taken before, during, and after a deception operation to prevent the enemy from ever knowing that he has been deceived.

o. Communication Security. Because of the importance of radio communication in desert operations, expect that the enemy will employ any electronic support measures (ESM) and electronic counter measures (ECM) available to him. Although, there are no special electronic counter-counter measures (ECCM) peculiar to desert operations, some points you must consider are:

(1) Electronic Security. The enemy will try to intercept speech transmissions, attempting to break voice codes in the process, and use the intelligence gained. He will also attempt to determine the locations of units, using direction finding equipment. Use radios fitted with on-line cryptographic equipment to the maximum extent possible. Yet users must guard against excessive chatter.

(2) Traffic Flow. The enemy can pick up variations in the amount of communication traffic and have warning of impending operations. Message flow must remain constant. Although this may mean you must send routine information, normally sent by radio, by other means before an operation.

(3) Concealing Antennas. This would be easy amid, for example, saguaro cactus in the Sonoran Desert. Such aids are unlikely to exist in the Middle East except vegetation in an oasis. Avoid siting tactical operations centers on high points, in isolated buildings, or areas where new tracks can be easily apparent to enemy reconnaissance. Look for areas that have strong vertical lines such as volcanic cracks, where antennae masts will not stand out. Raise antennas only the height necessary for communication with distant stations.

You can find additional information about ECCM techniques in the How-to-Fight manual for the appropriate level of command.

p. Direction Finding (DF). It is probably impossible to avoid the danger of direction finding, yet impose electronic silence if any other means of communication can be used. The following guidelines can degrade enemy DF capability:

Transmit using minimum power necessary for the job.

Use directional antennas. Distant stations should be terrain masked to the front when operating.

Make short and as few transmissions as possible.

Locate tactical operations center (TOC) antennas as far from a control station in the TOC as possible.

Take the following actions if jamming occurs:

- All stations check that their own transmitters are not inadvertently blocking the net with a "hot microphone. " Attempt to work through it without mentioning it on the air.

- If it is impossible to work through, switch to an alternate frequency according to SOP. One good method is to switch exactly on the next quarter-hour on the clock or some other prearranged system.

Use twin transmission if enough radios are available and blanket jamming is not being used. This involves transmitting simultaneously on two frequencies with distant stations picking up the unjammed frequency only.

3. Unit training.

When determining unit training requirements, the commander must first consider the training level of his unit when alerted for deployment. When there's no time for a comprehensive training program, the commander must concentrate on those areas where his unit is least proficient, considering the priorities previously described. In any event, in order to operate in the desert environment, the unit must above all, be physically fit. Thus physical conditioning is of paramount importance.

a. Physical Conditioning and Acclimatization. When possible, these take place simultaneously. When a unit is training in a hot environment, begin conditioning with physical training at night or during the cooler part of the day. Then, work up to rigorous training such as foot marches in open sand terrain at midday. Emphasis on mounted operations in desert warfare does not imply that foot marching can be disregarded. Continue physical conditioning after arrival in the area of operations. Make medical advice and unlimited salinated water always available during physical training in hot weather.

b. Weapons Training. Soldiers must train to proficiency at all ranges. Emphasize accuracy at maximum effective range both day and night. Fire during the heat of day to condition soldier's to heat haze and mirages. Also emphasize maintenance of individual weapons in view of sandy desert conditions.

c. NBC Training. The purpose of unit NBC training is to train individual soldiers to become proficient as a team while wearing protective clothing and masks, and in the case of combat vehicles, while buttoned up. Conduct this training both day and night, until the unit can operate for up to 48 hours under these conditions.

d. March Discipline. Although of particular importance to combat support and combat service support units, all units should train in tactical road marches. Training should emphasize

off road movement over open terrain, irregular spacing when moving in convoy, the need to maintain sufficient distances between vehicles to prevent "dust blindness. "

actions to be taken when stuck in sand, and when a vehicle breaks down.

vehicle camouflage, removal of tracks that would reveal friendly locations, the need for dispersion when halted, and air defense drills.

e. Obstacles and Barriers. Some desert areas have natural obstacles such as wadis or other terrain features. Often, however, if you must slow enemy movement, you will need to use artificial obstacles. A minefield, to be of any tactical value in the desert, must usually cover a large area. This requires mechanical means and engineer support to do the job. Since there are often too many avenues of approach to cover with mines, it is usually best to employ mines to cover any gaps between units, especially at night. Minefields are most effective when covered by observation or fire. Units should train soldiers to lay mines using gloves, since human scent attracts desert animals who may attempt to dig them up. Emphasis should be on antitank mine fields since combat vehicles are the most dangerous threat.

f. Scouting, Surveillance, and Patrolling. This training should emphasize the

effects of the environment on scouting, observation, and surveillance techniques.

effects of the environment on surveillance, target acquisition, and night observation.

g. Adjustment and Conduct of Fire. The principles for adjustment and conduct of fire in the desert are like operations in more temperate climates. Though somewhat peculiar to desert operations, keep the following considerations in mind:

Obscuration at the gun from either sand, dust, smoke, or in combination can affect direct fire adjustment.

There may be major inaccuracies of initial rounds from indirect fire weapons due to misjudgment of target location.

The target may be concealed by sand or dust if rounds land short, on, or near the observer target line.

Heat haze and mirages can mislead gunners and observers as to target location. This condition can particularly affect antitank guided missile gunners.

Gunners should concentrate on looking through obscuring conditions, not at them. Armor piercing discarding sabot (APDS), for example, will emit a vivid flash when striking armor. This can frequently be seen through dust and dirt. Although, it may produce the same effect if striking short on rock. Direct-fire gunners may have to depend on flank observers, who may be any person on the battlefield equipped with a radio. If you lose observation, subsequent corrections are very unlikely to cause a second round hit. Gun crews will have to use standard range changes or preferably target form adjustment. Both methods rely on the gunner maintaining an accurate sight picture over the whole of his reticle as the immediate front of the target will be totally obscured by flying dirt if the round landed short.

There are techniques you can use to overcome the obscuration/sending problem. For example, a heavy section of a tank platoon firing APDS might use either of the following techniques shown in Figures 2-13 and 2-14:

Figure 2-13. All Tanks Start the Engagement With Same Range and Ammunition Indexed.

An observer requesting indirect fires needs to ensure that initial rounds land beyond the target to preclude short rounds obscuring the target. He then adjusts accordingly. Units may need to use white phosphorus (WP) ammunition to ensure observers see the fall of the shot.

Heat haze varies throughout the day. It's greatest impact is on ATGM gunners when both gunner and target are within two or three feet (one meter) of the desert surface. Hence, ATGM gunners should have a line of sight approximately six feet (two meters) above the intervening terrain. Preferably, they should site so the sun is behind them.

Figure 2-14. Distance Between Tanks. Must Be No Greater Than 60 m.

h. Air Defense. In desert operations any type of unit, be it tank, infantry, trains, tactical operations centers, or supply points, can expect to be a target for air attack. Air attacks may be from fighter bomber aircraft using cannons, missiles, bombs, napalm, and machineguns or from attack helicopters using machineguns, rockets, or missiles.

NOTE:

Assume enemy air superiority during all field training.

Whenever possible, fly simulated fighter bomber attacks and attack helicopter missions against the unit. When practical, take aerial photographs of positions and interview pilots to assist in critique of air defense, both passive and active. Points that should be emphasized are:

(1) Passive Air Defense Measures. Passive air defense measures should be taken routinely. When stopped for any period of time, take every advantage of whatever cover and concealment is available. As previously described, natural cover and concealment will be difficult to find in many desert areas. Nevertheless, irregularly disperse and dig-in vehicles, particularly unarmored vehicles, or provide revetments. When appropriate, post air guards, trained in aircraft recognition, with clear instructions on what to do when sighting aircraft. Use artificial camouflage.

(2) Active Air Defense. Active air defense techniques used in desert operations are the same as those described in How-to-Fight manuals, appropriate to the level of command. However, at small unit level, give additional emphasis to air defense using small arms. When enemy aircraft engages combat vehicles on the move, their immediate action will depend on whether they are maneuvering in contact with the enemy. If they are in contact, they should continue to maneuver, relying on some overwatch elements and air defense artillery to engage attacking aircraft.

(3) Vehicles facing attack by enemy aircraft in an area where cover is not available, should move perpendicular to the attacking aircraft to evade rocket or machine gun fire. Engage the aircraft with small arms fire, if possible. The remainder of the unit meanwhile should mass small arms fire to the aircraft's front. Sudden variations in course also may distract the pilot.

(4) When attacked by napalm, turn vehicles in the direction of attack. Then, stop and switch off engines to avoid napalm ingestion, button up, fire the smoke launcher system if so equipped, while firing machineguns in the direction of the attack.

i. Communications. Good communications in this terrain will often depend on the state of mind of the operators. They must be enthusiastic, persistent, and determined to make and maintain contact. Commanders will probably find that it is usually the same station(s) that lost contact first. Unit training should concentrate on ECCM techniques. When conducting field training, higher headquarters can provide assistance in the form of small teams to jam unit nets. Practice actions to take when losing radio contact due to heat.

j. Desert Operations. This training should be as realistic as possible. Constrain field training by environmental influences on tactical operations.

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